PASAL-PASAL UUD 1945 YANG TELAH DIAMANDEMEN SEBELUM DAN SESUDAH AMANDEMEN

PASAL-PASAL UUD 1945 YANG TELAH DIAMANDEMEN
SEBELUM DAN SESUDAH AMANDEMEN

BAB I
BENTUK DAN KEDAULATAN
Pasal 1
1. Negara indonesia ialah negara kesatuan, yang berbentuk republik.
2. Kedaulatan adalah di tangan rakyat, dan dilakukan sepenuhnya oleh majelis permusyawaratan rakyat.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 1
1. Negara indonesia ialah negara kesatuan, yang berbentuk republik.
2. kedaulatan berada di tangan rakyat dan dilaksanakan menurut undang-undang dasar.***)
3.negara indonesia adalah negara hukum.***)
BAB II
MAJELIS PERMUSYAWARATAN RAKYAT
Pasal 2
1. majelis permusyawaratan rakyat terdiri atas anggota-anggota dewan perwakilan rakyat,di tambah dengan utusan-utusan dari daerah-daerah dan golongan-golongan,menurut aturan yang ditetapkan dengan undang-undang.
2. Majelis permusyawaratan rakyat ,bersidang sedikitnya sekali dalam lima tahun di ibukota negara.
3. Segala putusan majelis permusyawaratan rakyat, ditetapkan dengan suara yang terbanyak.
PERUBAHAN PASAl 2
1. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat terdiri atas anggota DewanPerwakilan Rakyat dan anggota Dewan Perwakilan Daerah yang dipilih melalui pemilihan umum dan diatur lebih lanjut dengan undang-undang.****)
2. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat bersidang sedikitnya sekali dalam lima tahun di ibu kota negara. Segala putusan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat ditetapkan dengan suara yang terbanyak.
3. Segala putusan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat ditetapkan dengan suara yang terbanyak.
Pasal 3
Majelis permusyawaratan rakyat menetapkan undang-undang dasar dan garis-garis besar daripada 1 negara.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 3
1. majelis permusyawaratan rakyat berwenang mengubah dan menetapkan undang-undang dasar.***)
2. majelis permusyawaratan rakyat melantik presiden dan/atau wakil presiden.***/****)
3. majelis permusyawaratan rakyat rakyat hanya dapat memberhentikan presiden dan/atau wakil presiden dalam masa jabatannya menurut undang-undang dasar.***/****)
BAB III
KEKUASAAN PEMERINTAHAN NEGARA
Pasal 5
1. Presiden memegang kekuasaan membentuk undang-undang dengan persetujuan dewan perwakilan rakyat.
2. Presiden menetapkan peraturan pemerintah untuk menjalankan undang-undang sebagaimana mestinya.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 5
Pasal 5
1. Presiden berhak mengajukan rancangan undang-undang kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.*)
2. Presiden menetapkan peraturan pemerintah untuk menjalankan undang-undang sebagaimana mestinya.
Pasal 6
1.Presiden ialah orang Indonesia asli
2. Presiden dan Wakil Presiden dipilih oleh Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat dengan suara yang terbanyak.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 6
Pasal 6
1. Calon Presiden dan calon Wakil Presiden harus seorang warganegara Indonesia sejak kelahirannya dan tidak pernah menerima kewarganegaraan lain karena kehendaknya sendiri, tidak pernah mengkhianati negara, serta mampu secara rohani dan jasmani untuk melaksanakan tugas dan kewajiban sebagai Presiden dan Wakil Presiden.***
2. Syarat-syarat untuk menjadi Presiden dan Wakil Presiden diatur lebih lanjut dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 6A
1. Presiden dan Wakil Presiden dipilih dalam satu pasangan secara langsung oleh rakyat.***)
2. Pasangan calon Presiden dan Wakil Presiden diusulkan oleh partai politik atau gabungan partai politik peserta pemilihan umum sebelum pelaksanaan pemilihan umum.***)
3. Pasangan calon Presiden dan Wakil Presiden yang mendapatkan suara lebih dari lima puluh persen dari jumlah suara dalam pemilihan umum dengan sedikitnya dua puluh persensuara di setiap provinsi yang tersebar di lebih dari setengah jumlah provinsi di Indonesia, dilantik menjadi Presiden dan Wakil Presiden.***)
4. Dalam hal tidak ada pasangan calon Presiden dan Wakil Presiden yang terpilih, dua pasangan calon yang memperoleh suara terbanyak pertama dan kedua dalam pemilihan umum dipilih oleh Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat dan pasangan yang memperoleh, suara terbanyak dilantik sebagai Presiden dan Wakil Presiden.****)
5. Tata cara pelaksanaan pemilihan Presiden dan Wakil Presiden lebih lanjut diatur dalam undang-undang.***)
Pasal 7
Presiden dan Wakil Presiden memegang jabatannya selama masa lima tahun,dan sesudahnya dapat dipilih kembali.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 7
Pasal 7
Presiden dan Wakil Presiden memegang jabatan selama lima tahun, dan sesudahnya dapat dipilih kembali dalam jabatan yang sama, hanya untuk satu kali masa jabatan.*)
Pasal 7A
Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden dapat diberhentikan dalam masa jabatannya oleh Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat atas usul Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, baik apabila terbukti telah melakukan pelanggaran hukum berupa pengkhianatan terhadap negara, korupsi, penyuapan, tindak pidana berat lainnya, atau perbuatan tercela maupun apabila terbukti tidak lagi memenuhi syarat sebagai Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden.***)
Pasal 7B
1. Usul pemberhentian Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden dapat diajukan oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat kepada Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat hanya dengan terlebih dahulu mengajukan permintaan kepada Mahkamah Konstitusi untuk memeriksa, mengadili, dan memutus pendapat Dewan PerwakilanRakyat bahwa Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden telah melakukan pelanggaran hukum berupa pengkhianatan terhadap negara, korupsi, penyuapan, tindak pidana berat lainnya, atau perbuatan tercela; dan/atau pendapat bahwa Presiden dan/atauWakil Presiden tidak lagi memenuhi syarat sebagai Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden.***)
2. Pendapat Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat bahwa Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden telah melakukan pelanggaran hukum tersebut ataupun telah tidak lagi memenuhi syarat sebagai Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden adalah dalam rangka pelaksanaan fungsi pengawasan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.***)
3. Pengajuan permintaan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat kepada Mahkamah Konstitusi hanya dapat dilakukan dengan dukungan sekurang-kurangnya 2/3 dari jumlah anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat yang hadir dalam sidang paripurna yang dihadiri oleh sekurang-kurangnya 2/3 dari jumlah anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.***)
4. Mahkamah Konstitusi wajib memeriksa, mengadili, dan memutus dengan seadil-adilnya terhadap pendapat Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat tersebut paling lama sembilan puluh hari setelah permintaan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat itu diterima oleh Mahkamah Konstitusi.***)
5. Apabila Mahkamah Konstitusi memutuskan bahwa Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden terbukti melakukan pelanggaran hukum berupa pengkhianatan terhadap negara, korupsi, penyuapan, tindak pidana berat lainnya, atau perbuatan tercela; dan/atau terbukti bahwa Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden tidak lagi memenuhi syarat sebagai Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat menyelenggarakan sidang paripurna untuk meneruskan usul pemberhentian Presiden dan/atau WakilPresiden kepada Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat.***)
6. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat wajib menyelenggarakan sidang untuk memutuskan usul Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat tersebut paling lambat tiga puluh hari sejak Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat menerima usul tersebut.***)
7. Keputusan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat atas usul pemberhentian Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden harus diambil dalam rapat paripurna Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat yang dihadiri oleh sekurang-kurangnya 3/4 dari jumlah anggota dan disetujui oleh sekurang-kurangnya 2/3 dari jumlah anggota yang hadir, setelah Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden diberi kesempatan menyampaikan penjelasan dalam rapat paripurna Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat.***)
Pasal 7C
Presiden tidak dapat membekukan dan/atau membubarkan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.***)
Pasal 8
Jika Presiden mangkat, berhenti, atau tidak dapat melakukan kewajibannya dalam masa jabatannya, ia diganti oleh Wakil Presiden sampai habis waktunya.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 8
Pasal 8
1. Jika Presiden mangkat, berhenti, diberhentikan, atau tidak dapat melakukan kewajibannya dalam masa jabatannya, ia digantikan oleh Wakil Presiden sampai habis masa jabatannya.***)
2. Dalam hal terjadi kekosongan Wakil Presiden, selambat-lambatnya dalam waktu enam puluh hari, Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat menyelenggarakan sidang untuk memilih Wakil Presiden dari dua calon yang diusulkan oleh Presiden.***)
3. Jika Presiden dan Wakil Presiden mangkat, berhenti, diberhentikan, atau tidak dapat melakukan kewajibannya dalam masa jabatannya secara bersamaan, pelaksana tugas kepresidenan adalah Menteri Luar Negeri, Menteri Dalam Negeri, dan Menteri Pertahanan secara bersama-sama. Selambat-jambatnya tiga puluh hari setelah itu, Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat menyelenggarakan sidang untuk memilih Presiden dan Wakil Presiden dari dua pasangan calon Presiden dan Wakil Presiden yang diusulkan oleh Partai politik atau gabungan partai politik yang pasangan calon Presiden dan Wakil Presidennya meraih suara terbanyak pertama dan ke dalam pemilihan umum sebelumnya, sampai habis masa jabatannya.****)
Pasal 9
Sebelum memangku jabatannya, Presiden dan Wakil Presiden bersumpah menurut agama, atau berjanji dengan sungguh-sungguh di hadapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat atau Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat sebagai berikut :Sumpah Presiden (Wakil Presiden) :“Demi Allah, saya bersumpah akan memenuhi kewajiban PresidenRepublik Indonesia (Wakil Presiden Republik Indonesia) dengan sebaik-baiknya dan seadil-adilnya, memegang teguh Undang-Undang Dasar dan menjalankan segala undang-undang dan peraturannya dengan selurus-lurusnya serta berbakti kepada Nusa dan Bangsa”.Janji Presiden (Wakil Presiden) :“Saya berjanji dengan sungguh-sungguh akan memenuhi kewajiban Presiden Republik Indonesia (Wakil Presiden Republik Indonesia) dengan sebaik-baiknya dan seadil-adilnya, memegang teguh Undang-Undang Dasar dan menjalankan segalaundang-undang dan peraturannya dengan selurus-lurusnya serta berbakti kepada Nusa dan Bangsa”.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 9
Pasal 9
1. Sebelum memangku jabatannya, Presiden dan Wakil Presiden bersumpah menurut agama, atau berjanji dengan sungguh-sungguh di hadapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat atau Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat sebagai berikut :Sumpah Presiden (Wakil Presiden):Demi Allah, saya bersumpah akan memenuhi kewajiban Presiden Republik Indonesia (Wakil Presiden Republik Indonesia) dengan sebaik-balknya dan seadil-adilnya, memegang teguh Undang-Undang Dasar dan menjalankan segala undang-undang dan peraturannya dengan selurus-lurusnya serta berbakti kepada Nusa dan Bangsa.Janji Presiden (Wakil Presiden):Saya berjanji dengan sungguh-sungguh akan memenuhi kewajiban Presiden Republik Indonesia (Wakil Presiden Republik Indonesia) dengan sebaik-balknya dan seadil-adllnya, memegang teguh Undang-Undang Dasar dan menjalankan segalaundang-undang dan peraturannya dengan selurus lurusnya serta berbakti kepada Nusa dan Bangsa.*)
2. Jika Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat atau Dewan PerwakilanRakyat tidak dapat mengadakan sidang, Presiden dan Wakil Presiden bersumpah menurut agama, atau berjanji dengan sungguh-sungguh di hadapan pimpinan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat dengan disaksikan oleh pimpinan Mahkamah Agung.*)
Pasal 11
Presiden dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat menyatakan perang, membuat perdamaian dan perjanjian dengan negara lain.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 11
Pasal 11
1. Presiden dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat menyatakan perang, membuat perdamaian dan perjanjian dengan negara lain.****)
2. Presiden dalam membuat perjanjian internasional lainnya yang menimbulkan akibat yang luas dan mendasar bagi kehidupan rakyat yang terkait dengan beban keuangan negara, dan/atau mengharuskan perubahan atau pembentukan undang-undang harus dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.***)
3. Ketentuan lebih lanjut tentang perjanjian internasional diatur dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 13
1. Presiden mengangkat duta dan konsul.
2. Presiden menerima duta negara lain.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 13
Pasal 13
1. Presiden mengangkat duta dan konsul.
2. Dalam hal mengangkat duta, Presiden memperhatikan pertimbangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.*)
3. Presiden menerima penempatan duta negara lain dengan memperhatikan pertimbangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.*)
Pasal 14
Presiden memberi grasi, amnesti, abolisi dan rehabilitasi.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 14
Pasal 14
1. Presiden memberi grasi dan rehabilitasi dengan memperhatikan pertimbangan Mahkamah Agung.*)
2. Presiden memberi amnesti dan abolisi dengan memperhatikan pertimbangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.*)
Pasal 15
Presiden memberi gelaran, tanda jasa dan lain-lain tanda kehormatan
PERUBAHAN PASAL 15
Pasal 15
Presiden memberi gelar, tanda jasa, dan lain-lain tanda kehormatan, yang diatur dengan undang-undang.*)
Pasal 16
1. Susunan Dewan Pertimbangan Agung ditetapkan dengan undang-undang.
2. Dewan ini berkewajiban memberi jawab atas pertanyaan Presiden dan berhak memajukan usul kepada pemerintah.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 16
Pasal 16
Presiden membentuk suatu dewan pertimbangan yang bertugas memberikan nasihat dan pertimbangan kepada Presiden, yang selanjutnya diatur dalam undang-undang.****)
BAB IV
DEWAN PERTIMBANGAN AGUNG
BAB V
KEMENTERIAN NEGARA
Pasal 17
1. Presiden dibantu oleh menteri-menteri negara.
2. Menteri-menteri itu diangkat dan diperhentikan oleh Presiden.
3. Menteri-menteri itu memimpin departemen pemerintah.

PERUBAHAN PASAL 17
Pasal 17
1. Presiden dibantu oleh menteri-menteri negara.
2. Menteri-menteri itu diangkat dan diberhentikan oleh Presiden.*)
3. Setiap menteri membidangi urusan tertentu dalam pemerintahan.*)
4. Pembentukan, pengubahan, dan pembubaran kementerian negara diatur dalam undang-undang.***)
BAB VI
PEMERINTAH DAERAH
Pasal 18
Pembagian daerah Indonesia atas daerah besar dan kecil, dengan bentuk susunan pemerintahannya ditetapkan dengan undang-undang, dengan memandang dan mengingati dasar permusyawaratan dalam sistem pemerintahan negara, dan hak-hak asal-usul dalam daerah-daerah yang bersifat istimewa.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 18
Pasal 18
1. Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia dibagi atas daerah-daerah provinsi dan daerah provinsi itu dibagi atas kabupaten dan kota, yang tiap-tiap provinsi, kabupaten, dan kota itu mempunyai pemerintahan daerah, yang diatur dengan undang-undang.**)
2. Pemerintahan daerah provinsi, daerah kabupaten, dan kota mengatur dan mengurus sendiri urusan pemerintahan menurut asas otonomi dan tugas pembantuan.**)
3. Pemerintahan daerah provinsi, daerah kabupaten, dan kota memiliki Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah yang anggota-anggotanya dipilih melalui pemilihan umum.**)
4. Gubernur, Bupati dan Walikota masing-masing sebagai KepalaPemerintah Daerah Provinsi, Kabupaten dan Kota dipilih secara demokratis.**)
5. Pemerintah daerah menjalankan otonomi seluas-luasnya, kecuali urusan pemerintahan yang oleh undang-undang ditentukan sebagai urusan Pemerintah Pusat.**)
6. Pemerintahan daerah berhak menetapkan peraturan daerah dan peraturan-peraturan lain untuk melaksanakan otonomi dantugas pembantuan.**)
7. Susunan dan tata cara penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah diatur dalam undang-undang.**)
Pasal 18A
1. Hubungan wewenang antara pemerintah pusat dan pemerintah daerah provinsi, kabupaten, dan kota atau antara provinsi dan kabupaten dan kota, diatur dengan Undang-undangdengan memperhatikan kekhususan dan keragaman daerah.**)
2. Hubungan keuangan, pelayanan umum, pemanfatan sumber daya alam dan sumber daya lainnya antara pemerintah pusat danpemerintahan daerah diatur dan dilaksanakan secara adil dan selaras berdasarkan undang-undang.**)
Pasal 18B
1. Negara mengakui dan menghormati satuan-satuan pemerintahan daerah yang bersifat khusus atau bersifat istimewa yang diatur dengan Undang-undang.**)
2. Negara mengakui dan menghormati kesatuan-kesatuan masyarakat hukum adat serta hak-hak tradisonalnya sepanjangmasih hidup dan sesuai dengan perkembangan masyarakat dan prinsip Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, yang diatur dalam undang-undang.**)
BAB VII
DEWAN PERWAKILAN RAKYAT
Pasal 19
1. Susunan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat ditetapkan dengan undang-undang.
2. Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat bersidang sedikitnya sekali dalam setahun.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 19
Pasal 19
1. Anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dipilih melalui pemilihan umum.**)
2. Susunan Dewan Perwakilan rakyat diatur dengan undang-undang.**)
3. Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat bersidang sedikitnya sekali dalam setahun.**)
Pasal 20
1. Tiap-tiap undang-undang menghendaki persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.
2. Jika sesuatu rancangan undang-undang tidak mendapat persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, maka rancangan tadi tidak boleh dimajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat masa itu.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 20
Pasal 20
1. Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat memegang kekuasaan membentuk undang undang.*)
2. Setiap rancangan undang-undang dibahas oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dan Presiden untuk mendapat persetujuan bersama.*)
3. Jika rancangan undang-undang itu tidak mendapat persetujuan bersama, rancangan undang-undang itu tidak boleh diajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyatmasa itu.*)
4. Presiden mengesahkan rancangan undang-undang yang telahdisetujui bersama untuk menjadi undang-undang.*)
5. Dalam hal rancangan undang-undang yang telah disetujui bersama tersebut tidak disahkan oleh Presiden dalam waktu tigapuluh hari semenjak rancangan undang-undang tersebut disetujui, rancangan undang-undang tersebut sah menjadi undang-undang dan wajib diundangkan.**)
Pasal 20A
1. Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat memiliki fungsi legislasi, fungsi anggaran dan fungsi pengawasan.**)
2. Dalam melaksanakan fungsinya, selain hak yang diatur dalam pasal-pasal lain Undang-Undang Dasar ini, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat mempunyai hak interpelasi, hak angket, dan hak menyatakan pendapat.**)
3. Selain hak yang diatur dalam pasal-pasal lain Undang-Undang Dasar ini, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat mempunyai hak mengajukan pertanyaan, menyampaikan usul dan pendapat, serta hak imunitas.**)
4. Ketentuan lebih lanjut tentang hak Dewan Perwakilan Rakyatdan hak anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat diatur dalam undang-undang.**)
Pasal 21
1. Anggota-anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat berhak memajukan rancangan undang-undang.
2. Jika rancangan itu, meskipun disetujui oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, tidak disahkan oleh Presiden, maka rancangan tadi tidak boleh dimajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat masa itu.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 21
Pasal 21
Anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat berhak mengajukan usul rancangan undang-undang.*)
Pasal 22
1. Dalam hal ihwal kegentingan yang memaksa, Presiden berhak menetapkan peraturan pemerintah sebagai pengganti undang-undang.
2. Peraturan pemerintah itu harus mendapat persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dalam persidangan yang berikut.
3. Jika tidak mendapat persetujuan, maka peraturan pemerintah itu harus dicabut.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 22
Pasal 22A
Ketentuan lebih lanjut tentang tata cara pembentukan undang-undang diatur dengan undang-undang.**)
Pasal 22B
Anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dapat diberhentikan dari jabatannya, yang syarat-syarat dan tata caranya diatur dalam undang-undang.**)

BAB VIII
HAL KEUANGAN
Pasal 23
1. Anggaran pendapatan dan belanja ditetapkan tiap-tiap tahun dengan undang-undang. Apabila Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat tidakmenyetujui anggaran yang diusulkan pemerintah,maka pemerintah menjalankan anggaran tahun yang lalu.
2. Segala pajak untuk keperluan negara berdasarkan undang-undang.
3. Macam dan harga mata uang ditetapkan dengan undang-undang.
4. Hal keuangan negara selanjutnya diatur dengan undang-undang.
5. Untuk memeriksa tanggung jawab tentang keuangan negara diadakan suatu Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan, yang peraturannya ditetapkan dengan undang-undang. Hasil pemeriksaan itu diberitahukan kepada Dewan Perwakilan rakyat.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 23
Pasal 23
1. Anggaran pendapatan dan belanja negara sebagai wujud dari pengelolaan keuangan negara ditetapkan setiap tahun dengan undang-undang dan dilaksanakan secara terbuka dan bertanggung jawab untuk sebesar-besarnya kemakmuran rakyat.***)
2. Rancangan undang-undang anggaran pendapatan dan belanja negara diajukan oleh Presiden untuk dibahas bersama Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dengan memperhatikan pertimbanganDewan Perwakilan Daerah.***)
3. Apabila Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat tidak menyetujui rancangan anggaran pendapatan dan belanja negara yang diusulkan oleh Presiden, Pemerintah menjalankan Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Negara tahun yang lalu.***)
Pasal 23A
Pajak dan pungutan lain yang bersifat memaksa untuk keperluan negara diatur dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 23B
Macam dan harga mata uang ditetapkan dengan undang-undang.****)
Pasal 23C
Hal-hal lain mengenai keuangan negara diatur dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 23D
Negara memiliki suatu bank sentral yang susunan, kedudukan, kewenangan, tanggung jawab, dan independensinya diatur dengan undang-undang.****)

BAB VIII
BADAN PEMERIKSA KEUANGAN
Pasal 23E
1. Untuk memeriksa pengelolaan dan tanggung jawab tentang keuangan negara diadakan satu Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan yang bebas dan mandiri.***)
2. Hasil pemeriksaan keuangan negara diserahkan kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, dan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, sesuai dengan kewenangannya.***)
3. Hasil pemeriksaan tersebut ditindaklanjuti oleh lembaga perwakilan dan/atau badan sesuai dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 23F
1. Anggota Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan dipilih oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dengan memperhatikan pertimbangan DewanPerwakilan Daerah dan diresmikan oleh Presiden.***)
2. Pimpinan Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan dipilih dari dan oleh anggota.***)
Pasal 23G
1. Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan berkedudukan di ibu kota negara,dan memiliki perwakilan di setiap provinsi.***)
2. Ketentuan lebih lanjut mengenai Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan diatur dengan undang-undang.***)
BAB IX
KEKUASAAN KEHAKIMAN
Pasal 24
1.Kekuasaan kehakiman dilakukan oleh sebuah Mahkamah Agungdan lain-lain badan kehakiman menurut undang-undang.2. Susunan dan kekuasaan badan-badan kehakiman itu diatur dengan undang-undang.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 24
Pasal 24
1. Kekuasaan kehakiman merupakan kekuasaan yang merdeka untuk menyelenggarakan peradilan guna menegakkan hukum dan keadilan.***)
2. Kekuasaan kehakiman dilakukan oleh sebuah Mahkamah Agungdan badan peradilan yang berada di bawahnya dalam lingkungan peradilan umum, lingkungan peradilan agama, lingkungan peradilan militer, lingkungan peradilan tata usaha negara, dan oleh sebuah Mahkamah Konstitusi.***)
3. Badan-badan lain yang fungsinya berkaitan dengan kekuasaan kehakiman diatur dalam undang-undang.****)
Pasal 24A
1. Mahkamah Agung berwenang mengadili pada tingkat kasasi, menguji peraturan perundang-undangan di bawah undang-undang terhadap undang-undang, dan mempunyai wewenang lainnya yang diberikan oleh undang-undang.***)
2. Hakim agung harus memiliki integritas dan kepribadian yang tidak tercela, adil, profesional, dan berpengalaman di bidang hukum.***)
3. Calon hakim agung diusulkan Komisi Yudisial kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat untuk mendapatkan persetujuan dan selanjutnya ditetapkan sebagai hakim agung oleh Presiden.***)
4. Ketua dan wakil ketua Mahkamah Agung dipilih dari dan oleh hakim agung.***)
5. Susunan, kedudukan, keanggotaan, dan hukum acara Mahkamah Agung serta badan peradilan di bawahnya diatur dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 24B
1. Komisi Yudisial bersifat mandiri yang berwenang mengusulkan pengangkatan hakim agung dan mempunyai wewenang lain dalam rangka menjaga dan menegakkan kehormatan, keluhuran martabat, serta perilaku hakim.***)
2. Anggota Komisi Yudisial harus mempunyai pengetahuan dan pengalaman di bidang hukum serta memiliki integritas dan kepribadian yang tidak tercela.***)
3. Anggota Komisi Yudisial diangkat dan diberhentikan oleh Presiden dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.***)
4. Susunan, kedudukan, dan keanggotaan Komisi Yudisial diatur dengan undang-undang.***)
Pasal 24C
1. Mahkamah Konstitusi berwenang mengadili pada tingkat pertama dan terakhir yang putusannya bersifat final untuk menguji undang-undang terhadap Undang-Undang Dasar, memutus sengketa kewenangan lembaga negara yang kewenangannya diberikan oleh Undang-Undang Dasar, memutus pembubaran partai politik, dan memutus perselisihan tentang hasil pemilihan umum.***)
2. Mahkamah Konstitusi wajib memberikan putusan atas pendapat Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat mengenai dugaan pelanggaran oleh Presiden dan/atau Wakil Presiden menurut Undang-Undang Dasar.***)
3. Mahkamah Konstitusi mempunyai sembilan orang anggota hakim konstitusi yang ditetapkan oleh Presiden, yang diajukan masing-masing tiga orang oleh Mahkamah Agung, tiga orang oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, dan tiga orang oleh Presiden.***)
4. Ketua dan Wakil Ketua Mahkamah Konstitusi dipilih dari dan oleh hakim konstitusi.***)
5. Hakim konstitusi harus memiliki integritas dan kepribadian yang tidak tercela, adil, negarawan yang menguasai konstitusi dan ketatanegaraan, serta tidak merangkap sebagai pejabat negara.***)
6. Pengangkatan dan pemberhentian hakim konstitusi, hukum acara serta lainnya tentang Mahkamah Konstitusi diatur dengan undang-undang.***)

BAB X
WARGA NEGARA DAN PENDUDUK**)
Pasal 27
1. Segala warga negara bersamaan kedudukannya di dalam hukum dan pemerintahan dan wajib menjunjung hukum dan pemerintahan itu dengan tidak ada kecualinya.
2. Tiap-tiap warga negara berhak atas pekerjaan dan penghidupan yang layak bagi kemanusiaan.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 27
1. Segala warga negara bersamaan kedudukannya di dalam hukum dan pemerintahan dan wajib menjunjung hukum dan pemerintahan itu dengan tidak ada kecualinya.
2. Tiap-tiap warga negara berhak atas pekerjaan dan penghidupan yang layak bagi kemanusiaan.
3. Setiap warga negara berhak dan wajib ikut serta dalam upayapembelaan negara.**)
Pasal 28
Kemerdekaan berserikat dan berkumpul, mengeluarkan pikiran dengan lisan dan tulisan dan sebaganya ditetapkan dengan undang-undang.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 28
BAB X
HAK ASASI MANUSIA
Pasal 28A
Setiap orang berhak untuk hidup serta berhak mempertahankan hidup dan kehidupannya.**)
Pasal 28B
1. Setiap orang berhak membentuk keluarga dan melanjutkan keturunan melalui perkawinan yang sah.**)
2. Setiap anak berhak atas kelangsungan hidup, tumbuh, dan berkembang serta berhak atas perlindungan dari kekerasan dandiskriminasi.**)
Pasal 28C
1. Setiap orang berhak mengembangkan diri melalui pemenuhan kebutuhan dasarnya, berhak mendapat pendidikan dan memperoleh manfaat dari ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, seni dan budaya, demi meningkatkan kualitas hidupnya dan demi kesejahteraan umat manusia.**)
2. Setiap orang berhak untuk memajukan dirinya dalam memperjuangkan haknya secara kolektif untuk membangun masyarakat, bangsa dan negaranya.**)
Pasal 28D
1. Setiap orang berhak atas pengakuan, jaminan, perlindungan,dan kepastian hukum yang adil serta perlakuan yang sama dihadapan hukum.**)
2. Setiap orang berhak untuk bekerja serta mendapat imbalan dan perlakuan yang adil dan layak dalam hubungan kerja.**)
3. Setiap warga negara berhak memperoleh kesempatan yang sama dalam pemerintahan.**)
4. Setiap orang berhak atas status kewarganegaraan.**)
Pasal 28E
1. Setiap orang bebas memeluk agama dan beribadat menurut agamanya, memilih pendidikan dan pengajaran, memilih pekerjaan, memilih kewarganegaraan, memilih tempat tinggal di wilayah negara dan meninggalkannya, serta berhak kembali.**)
2. Setiap orang berhak atas kebebasan meyakini kepercayaan, menyatakan pikiran dan sikap, sesuai dengan hati nuraninya.**)
3. Setiap orang berhak atas kebebasan berserikat, berkumpul, dan mengeluarkan pendapat.**)
Pasal 28F
Setiap orang berhak untuk berkomunikasi dan memperoleh informasi untuk mengembangkan pribadi dan lingkungan sosialnya, serta berhak untuk mencari, memperoleh, memiliki, menyimpan, mengolah, dan menyampaikan informasi dengan menggunakan segala jenis saluran yang tersedia.**)
Pasal 28G
1. Setiap orang berhak atas perlindungan diri pribadi, keluarga,kehormatan, martabat, dan harta benda yang dibawah kekuasaannya, serta berhak atas rasa aman dan perlindungan dari ancaman ketakutan untuk berbuat atau tidak berbuat sesuatu yang merupakan hak asasi.**)
2. Setiap orang berhak untuk bebas dari penyiksaan dan perlakuan yang merendahkan derajat martabat manusia dan berhak memperoleh suaka politik dari negara lain.**)
Pasal 28H
1. Setiap orang berhak hidup sejahtera lahir dan batin, bertempat tinggal, dan medapatkan lingkungan hidup baik dan sehat serta berhak memperoleh pelayanan kesehatan.**)
2. Setiap orang mendapat kemudahan dan perlakuan khusus untuk memperoleh kesempatan dan manfaat yang sama guna mencapai persamaan dan keadilan.**)
3. Setiap orang berhak atas jaminan sosial yang memungkinkan pengembangan dirinya secara utuh sebagai manusia yang bermartabat.**)
4. Setiap orang berhak mempunyai hak milik pribadi dan hak milik tersebut tidak boleh diambil alih secara sewenang-wenang oleh siapa pun.**)
Pasal 28I
1. Hak untuk hidup, hak untuk tidak disiksa, hak kemerdekaan pikiran dan hati nurani, hak beragama, hak untuk tidak diperbudak, hak untuk diakui sebagai pribadi dihadapan hukum, dan hak untuk tidak dituntut atas dasar hukum yang berlaku surut adalah hak asasi manusia yang tidak dapat dikurangi dalam keadaan apa pun.**)
2. Setiap orang berhak bebas atas perlakuan yang bersifat diskriminatif atas dasar apa pun dan berhak mendapatkan perlindungan terhadap perlakuan yang bersifat diskriminatif itu.**)
3. Identitas budaya dan hak masyarakat tradisional dihormati selaras dengan perkembangan zaman dan peradaban.**)
4. Perlindungan, pemajuan, penegakan, dan pemenuhan hak asasi manusia adalah tanggung jawab negara, terutama pemerintah.**)
5. Untuk menegakan dan melindungi hak assi manusia sesuai dengan prinsip negara hukum yang demokratis, maka pelaksanaan hak asasi manusia dijamin, diatur, dan dituangkan dalam peraturan perundangan-undangan.**)
Pasal 28J
1. Setiap orang wajib menghormati hak asasi manusia orang laindalam tertib kehidupan bermasyarakat, berbangsa, dan bernegara.**)
2. Dalam menjalankan hak dan kebebasannya, setiap orang wajibtunduk kepada pembatasan yang ditetapkan dengan undang-undang dengan maksud semata-mata untuk menjamin pengakuan serta penghormatan atas hak kebebasan orang lain dan untuk memenuhi tuntutan yang adil sesuai dengan pertimbangan moral, nilai-nilai agama, keamanan, dan ketertiban umum dalam suatu masyarakat demokratis.**)
BAB XII
PERTAHANAN NEGARA
Pasal 30
1. Tiap-tiap warga negara berhak dan wajib ikut serta dalam usaha pembelaan negara.
2. Syarat-syarat tentang pembelaan diatur dengan undang-undang.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 30
BAB XII
PERTAHANAN DAN KEAMANAN NEGARA**)
Pasal 30
1. Tiap-tiap warga negara berhak dan wajib ikut serta dalam usaha pertahanan dan keamanan negara.**)
2. Usaha pertahanan dan keamanan negara dilaksanakan melaluisistem pertahanan dan keamanan rakyat semesta oleh Tentara Nasional Indonesia dan Kepolisian Negara Indonesia Republik Indonesia, sebagai kekuatan utama, dan rakyat, sebagai kekuatan pendukung.**)
3. Tentara Nasional Indonesia terdiri atas Angkatan Darat, Angkatan Laut dan Angkatan Udara sebagai alat negara bertugas mempertahankan, melindungi, dan memelihara keutuhan dan kedaulatan negara.**)
4. Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia sebagai alat negara yang menjaga kemanan dan ketertiban masyarakat bertugas melindungi, mengayomi, melayani masyarakat, serta menegakkan hukum.**
5. Susunan dan kedudukan Tentara Nasional Indonesia, Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia , hubungan kewenangan Tentara Nasional Indonesia dan Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia di dalam menjalankan tugasnya, syarat-syarat keikutsertaan warga negara dalam usaha pertahanan dan keamanan diatur dengan undang-undang.**)
BAB XIII
P E N D I D I K A N
Pasal 31
1. Tiap-tiap warga negara berhak mendapat pengajaran.
2. Pemerintah mengusahakan dan menyelenggarakan satu sistem pengajaran nasional, yang diatur dengan undang-undang.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 31
BAB XIII
PENDIDIKAN DAN KEBUDAYAAN****)
Pasal 31
1. Setiap warga negara berhak mendapat pendidikan.****)
2. Setiap warga negara wajib mengikuti pendidikan dasar dan pemerintah wajib membiayainya.****)
3. Pemerintah mengusahakan dan menyelenggarakan satu sistem pendidikan nasional, yang meningkatkan keimanan dan ketakwaan serta akhlak mulia dalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, yang diatur dengan undang-undang.****)
4. Negara memprioritaskan anggaran pendidikan sekurang-kurangnya dua puluh persen dari anggaran pendapatan dan belanja negara serta dari anggaran pendapatan dan belanja daerah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan penyelenggaraan pendidikannasional.****)
5. Pemerintah memajukan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi dengan menjunjung tinggi nilai-nilai agama dan persatuan bangsa untuk kemajuan peradaban serta kesejahteraan manusia.****)
Pasal 32
Pemerintah memajukan kebudayaan nasional Indonesia.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 32P
asal 32
1. Negara memajukan kebudayaan nasional Indonesia di tengah peradaban dunia dengan menjamin kebebasan masyarakat dalammemelihara dan mengembangkan nilai-nilai budayanya.****)
2. Negara menghormati dan memelihara bahasa daerah sebagai kekayaan budaya nasional.****)
BAB XIV
KESEJAHTERAAN SOSIAL
Pasal 33
1. Perekonomian disusun sebagai usaha bersama berdasar atas asas kekeluargaan.
2. Cabang-cabang produksi yang penting bagi negara dan yang menguasai hajat hidup orang banyak dikuasai oleh negara.
3. Bumi dan air dan kekayaan alam yang terkandung di dalamnya dikuasai oleh negara dan dipergunakan untuk sebesar-besar kemakmuran rakyat.
BAB XIV
PEREKONOMIAN NASIONAL DAN KESEJAHTERAAN SOSIAL****)
Pasal 33
1. Perekonomian disusun sebagai usaha bersama berdasar atas asas kekeluargaan.
2. Cabang-cabang produksi yang penting bagi negara dan yang menguasai hajat hidup orang banyak dikuasai oleh negara.
3. Bumi dan air dan kekayaan alam yang terkandung di dalamnya dikuasai oleh negara dan dipergunakan untuk sebesar-besar kemakmuran rakyat.
4. Perekonomian nasional diselenggarakan berdasar atas demokrasi ekonomi dengan prinsip keadilan, kebersamaan efisiensi berkeadilan, berkelanjutan, berwawasan lingkungan, kemandirian, serta dengan menjaga keseimbangan kemajuan dan kesatuan ekonomi nasional.****)
5. Ketentuan lebih lanjut mengenai pelaksanaan pasal ini diatur dalam undang-undang.****)
Pasal 34
Fakir miskin dan anak-anak yang terlantar dipelihara oleh negara.
PERUBAHAN PASAL 34
Pasal 34
1. Fakir miskin dan anak-anak yang terlantar dipelihara oleh negara.****)
2. Negara mengembangkan sistem jaminan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat dan memberdayakan masyarakat yang lemah dan ticlak mampu sesuai dengan martabat kemanusiaan.****)
3. Negara bertanggung jawab atas penyediaan fasilitas pelayanan kesehatan dan fasilitas pelayanan umum yang layak.****)
4. Ketentuan lebih lanjut mengenai pelaksanaan pasal ini diatur dalam undang-undang.****)

Alasan amandemen pasal pasal UUD 45
1. Karena UUD 1945 merupakan hukum dasar tertulis yang dijadikan landasan dalam penyelenggaraan Negara maka harus sesuai dengan aspirasi tuntutan kehidupan masyarakat Indonesia. Mengingat kehidupan masyarakat Indonesia yang selalu tumbuh dan berkembang sesuai dengan peradaban manusia pada umumnya maka UUD 1945 diamandemen oleh MPR. Perubahan UUD 1945 memiliki arti yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan bangsa Indonesia.
2. Karena menghilangkan pandangan adanya keyakinan bahwa UUD 1945 merupakan hal yang sacral, tidak bisa diubah, diganti, dikaji mendalam tentang kebenaran seperti doktrin yang diterapkan pada masa orde baru.
3. Karena perubahan UUD 1945 memberikan peluang kepada bangsa Indonesia untuk membangun dirinya atau melaksanakan pembangunan yang sesuai dengan kondisi dan aspirasi masyarakat
.4. Karena perubahan UUD 1945 mendidik jiwa demoktrasi yang sudah dipelopori oleh MPR pada waktu mengadakan perubahan UUD itu sendiri, sehingga lembaga Negara, badan badan lainnya serta dalam kehidupan masyarakat berkembang jiwa demokrasi.
5. Karena perubahan UUD 1945 menghilangkan kesan jiwa UUD 1945 yang sentralistik dan otoriter sebab dengan adanya amandemen UUD 1945 masa jabatan presiden dibatasi, kekuasaan presiden dibatasi, system pemerintahan dIsentralisasi dan otonomi.
6. Karena perubahan UUD 1945 menghidupkan perkembangan politik ke arah keterbukaan.
7. Karena perubahan UUD 1945 mendorong para cendekiawan dan berbagai tokoh masyarakat untuk lebih proaktif dan kreatifmengkritisi pemerintah (demi kebaikan) sehingga mendorong kehidupan bangsa yang dinamis (berkembang) dalam segala bidang, baik politik, ekonomi, social budaya sehingga dapat mewujudkan kehidupan yang maju dan sejahtera sejajar dengan bangsa-bangsa lain yang telah maju.
2. Latar belakang Perubahan UUD 1945
Salah satu tuntutan Reformasi 1998 adalah dilakukannya perubahan (amandemen) terhadap UUD 1945. Latar belakang tuntutan perubahan UUD 1945 antara lain karena pada masa Orde Baru, kekuasaan tertinggi di tangan MPR (dan pada kenyataannya bukan di tangan rakyat), kekuasaan yang sangat besar pada Presiden, adanya pasal-pasal yang terlalu “luwes” (sehingga dapat menimbulkan mulitafsir), serta kenyataan rumusan UUD 1945 tentang semangat penyelenggara negara yang belum cukup didukung ketentuan konstitusi.Perubahan UUD bukan suatu yang ditabukan, tapi merupakan tuntutan sejarah. Perubahan UUD sudah bisa diprediksi oleh Ir. Soekarno. Pada saat pembahasan penetapan UUD sudah dikemukakan bahwa UUD kita memang sudah simple namun jika suatu saat terjadi perkembangan zaman boleh diubah agar bisa menyesuaikan atau beradaptasi. Jadi ini juga merupakan amanat dari Ir. Soekarno.Dahulu Indonesia pernah memiliki UUD yang isinya sangat berbeda dengan UUD Negara RI tahun1945, yaitu UUD RIS dan UUDS. Yang berbeda adalah pada UUD RIS sistem pemerintahannya adalah Serikat, pada UUDS sistem pemerintahannya adalah Federal, sedangkan pada UUD Negara RI th 1945 sistem pemerintahannya adalah Kesatuan.Pada Orde Baru dituntut tidak adanya perubahan UUD 1945. Hal ini diperkuat dengan adanya Tap MPR No. IV/MPR/1993 yang menjelaskan ketidakmungkinan terjadi perubahan. Kalaupun terjadi perubahan harus diadakan referendum atau persetujuan dari masyarakat. Namun hal ini berbeda sekali dengan Pasal 37 ayat 1 dan 2 yang menyatakan bahwa perubahanboleh dilakukan tanpa adanya referendum. Sehingga Tap MPR No. IV/MPR/1993 dicabut.

HAAL ( Makalah Haal, Study Islam )

I.PENDAHULUAN
Bahasa Arab adalah bahasa Al-Qur’an dan hadis. Umat islam tidak dapat menggali, memahami dan mempelajari ajaran agama Islam yang terdapat pada al-Quran dan hadis tanpa memiliki kemampuan menggali, memahami dan menguasai bahasa Arab dengan baik. Dalam upaya mengembangkan wawasan berbahasa Arab, amat diperlukan adanya sebuah kajian kebahasaan, kemampuan menguasai bahas Arab merupakan kunci dan syarat mutlak yang harus di miliki setiap orang yang hendak mengkaji ajaran islam secara luas dan mendalam.Ilmu nahwu adalah ilmu yang mempelajari tentang kaidah-kaidah yang digunakan dalam berbahasa Arab untuk mengetahui hukum kalimat dalam bahasa arab. Dalam ilmu nahwu dikenal istilahHaal. Kami pemakalah akan mencoba menjelaskan sedikit tentang ilmu nahwu dalam bab Haal.

II.     RUMUSAN MASALAH
A.   Bagaimana Pengertian Haal?
B.    Apa sajakahSyarat-syarat Haal?
C.    Apa sajakah Macam-macam Haal?
III.  PEMBAHASAN
A.PENGERTIAN HAL
Hal secara bahasa artinya “keadaan/sikap. Dalam istilah ilmu nahwu hal adalah isim yang dinasabknan yang menjadi penjelas dari sesuatu sikap yang masih belum terang, baik itu dari fail atau maf’ul atau keduanya. Dalam tata bahasa indonesia hal ini dinamakan kata keterangan kualitatif.
Beberapa ulama nahwu memberikan pengertian hal sebagai berikut :
·الحال هو الاسم المنصوب المفسر لهيئة صاحبه عند حصول معنى عامله فهو
وصف في المعنى لصاحبه قيد لعامله[1]
·الحال وصف فضلة منتصب۞مفهم فى حال كفردا أذهب[2]

Dari tiga definisi di atas dapat disimpulkan hal adalah sifat yang fadhlah lagi dinasabkan dan memberi keterangan keadaanshohibul hal (yang masih belum diketahui atau samar) yang berupafail atau maf’ul bih atau keduanya atau selain keduanya.Contoh :تكلَّم صادقا .وانقل الخبر صحيحا . لقيت عبد الله راكبين . هذا الهلال طالعا . أنت مجتهدا أخى .سريت الليل مظلما .Pada definisi diatas kata “sifat” merupakan jinis yang mencakup khobar, naat dan lain-lain. Sifat tersebut tidak dibedakan baik yang mustaq dari fiil ataupun yang berupa isim jamid yang di takwil. Selanjutnya sifat itu diqayyidi harus berupa fadhlah. Menurut kitab jami’ud durus fadhlah adalah yang selain musnad dan musnad ilaih atausesuatu yang dicukupkan tanpa penyebutanya.

B.SYARAT-SYARAT HAL
a.Berupa Sifat yang Muntaqil(isim yang menunjukkan artisifat yang bisa berpindah-pindah, tidak selalu menetapi pada shohibul halnya saja). Contoh:جَاءَ مُحَمَّدٌ رَاكِبًا.Sifat naik itu hanya senantiasa berada pada Muhammad. Karena, bisa juga dilain hari ia dating dengan tidak naik, dan begitu seterusnya.Syarat hal itu berupa sifat, tetapi terkadang keluar dari qaidah asal bahwa hal harus berupa sifat yaitu hal yang berupa masdar. Bahkan ibnu malik mengatakan hal yang berupa masdar itu banyak ditemukan.[4]Contoh :زيد طلع بغتةKadang-kadang, hal itu juga terdiri dari isim sifat yang tidakmuntaqilseperti contoh:دَعُوْتَ اللهَ سَمِيْعًا.Sifat mendengar ini tidak bisa terpisah oleh Allah.Juga seperti syair berikut ini.فجاءتبه سبط العظام كأنما۞عمامته بين الرجال لواء
b.Berupa Isim Mustaq.
Isim yang menjadi hal harusnya berupa isim mustaq seperti contoh :أذهب ماشياTetapi terkadang hal itu ada yang terdiri dari isim jamid jika bisa dita’wilmusytaqdan juga paling banyak ialah bilaisim jamid tersebut menunjukkan arti harga, arti musyarakahمفاعلة(suatu pekerjaan yang dilakukan oleh dua pihak), menyerupakan dan tartib.
Contoh:
• 1.Menunjukkan arti harga
Contoh:بِعْهُ مُدًّا بِدِرْهَمٍ→taqdirnyaبِعْهُ مُسْعَرًا كَلُّ مُدٍّ بِدِرْهَمٍ
• 2.Menunjukkan arti tasybih (menyerupakan)Contoh:كَرَّ زَيْدٌ أَسَدًا→taqdirnyaكَرَّ زَيْدٌ شُجَاعًاكَالْأَسَدِ
• 3) Menunjukkan arti(مفاعلةmusyarakah(Contoh:كَلَّمْتُ مُحَمَّدًا فَاهُ إِلَى فِيَّ→taqdirnyaكَلَّمْتُ مُتَشَافِهَيْنِ
• 4. menunjukan tartib[5]Contoh:دخل القومرجلا رجلا→taqdirnyaمترتبيندخل القوم
• 5.Disifati contoh:إنَّا اَنْزَلْنَاهُ قُرْانًاعَرَبِيًّا“sesungguhnya Kami telah menurunkan al-Qur’an yang berbahasa Arab”
c.Berupa Isim Nakiroh
Sebagaimana dalam Alfiah ibnu malik yang di terangkan kembali dalam ibnu aqil bahwa hal harus berupa isim nakiroh supaya tidak disangka sebagai naat, apabila shohibul halnya mansub, sedang selain mansub disamakan.[7]Dan terkadang hal berupa isim ma’rifat yang tidak bisa dikiaskan pada hal yang lain. Contoh:جاء الضيف وحده
C.AMIL HAL
Amil hal itu ada 4 macam, yaitu:
a.Terdiri darifi’il muttashorif  جَاءَ مُحَمَّدٌ رَاكِبًا
b. Terdiri dari lafadz yang mengandung arti dan huruf-huruf fi’ilnya yang muttashorrif dan bisa ditasniyahkan, dijamakan serta bisa dimu’annatskan, seperti: isim fa’il, isim maf’ul, isim sifat musyabahah dansighat muballaghah.مُحَ aمَّدٌ راحل مسرعا
c. Terdiri dari lafad yang mengandung arti dan huruf-huruf fi’ilnya yang muttasharrif. Akan tetapi, tidak bisa ditasniyahkan, dijama’kan dan tidak bisa juga dimu’annatskan, yaitu: isimtafdhildan fi’ilta’ajjub. زيدمفردا أنفع من عمرو معانا
d. Terdiri dari lafadz yang mengandung arti fi’il, akan tetapi tidak mengandung huruf-hurufnya, seperti: isim fi’il, isim isyarah,adawat tasyibih, adawat tamami, adawattarojji, adawat istifham, huruf tanbih, jer majrur, dhorof dan huruf nida’
فتلك بيوتكم خويةً بما ظلموا) النمل :٥۲( (
Amilnya hal kebanyakan disebutkan dan terkadang di buang. Dalam pembuangan tersebut, ada yang boleh dibuang dan wajib di buang.
Contoh yang boleh di buang yaitu ketika dalil dari sebuah pertanyaan .أيَحْسبُ الانسان ألن نجمَعَ عِكظامَه بلى قادرين على أن نسوِّيَ بنانَه ) القيامة :(

Contoh yang wajib dibuang ketika:
a.Hal berfaidah mentaukidi makna yang terkandung dalam jumlah sebelumnya.أخوك عطوفا اى احقه عطوفازيد
b.Hal yang menempati tempatnya khobar.ضربي زيدا قائما اى يوجد قائما
c.Hal yang menjelaskan pengurangan atau penambahan. ]اشتريته بدرهم فصائدا اى فذهب الثمن صاعدا
d.Pembuangan amil hal yang bersifat sama’i(سماعى).هنيئا لك اى ثبت لك الشيئ هنيئا

D.SHOHIBUL HAL
Syaikh Mustofa algalayini mengatakan:وصاحب الحال : ما كانت الحال وصفا له فى المعنى Jadi shohibul hal adalah subjek atau pelaku yang dijelaskan oleh hal tentang keadaannya. Shohibul hal harus berupa isim ma’rifat, baik berupa isim dlohir ataupunisim dlomir, seperti dalam kitab qawaidul assasiyah lillughoh arbiyah:والاصل فيه كما في المبتدإ أن يكون معرفة لانّه محكوم عليه[ Oleh karena itu jika Shohibul hal berupa isim nakiroh maka harus ada musawwighnya (sesuatu yang memperbolehkan Shohibul hal berupa nakiroh) diantara  musawwigh Shohibul hal nakiroh adalah :
1)Hal didahulukan dan Shohibul hal diakhirkanContoh :فِي الدَّارِ قَائِماً رَجُلٌLafadzرَجُلٌ menjadi Shohibul Haalقَائِماً dikarenakan susunankalamnya berupa jar majrur.Seperti juga syair yang disebutkan imam sibawaih ]وبالجسم مني بينا لو علمته۞شحوب وان تستشهدى العين تشهدوما لام نفسي مثلها لى لائم۞ولا سد فقرى مثل ما ملكت يدى
2) Shohibul Haal ditakhshish dengan sifat atau ditakhshish dengan idlofah.·Hal ditakhshish dengan sifat.
Contoh:الدخان)فِيْهَا يَفْرَقُ كُلّ امرٍ حَكِيْمٍ امرًا مِنْ عِنْدَ  ناَ" pada malam lailatul qadar itu dijelaskan segala urusan yang penuh hikmah yaitu urusan yang besar disisi kami"Lafadzكُلّ امرٍmenjadi shohibul haal lafadzامرًاkarena disifati oleh lafadz حَكِيْمٍ·Dan ada kalanya ditakhshish dengan Idhofahcontoh :(فِي اَرْبَعَةِ اَيَّامٍ سَوَاءً لِلسَّا ئِلِيْنَ )فصلت : 10"dalam empat masa (Penjelasan sebagai jawaban) bagi orang-orang yang bertanya"
3) Shohibul hal jatuh setelah nafi atau syibh nafi (nahi atau istifham)Contoh :·Shohibul hal yang jatuh setelah nafi :مَا جَاءَ رَجُلٌ رَ كِيبًاLafadzمَاmenjadi nafi, lafadzجَاءَmenja
di ‘amil, lafadzرَجُلٌmenjadi shohibul haal, lafadzرَ كِيبًاmanjadi haal. Seperti dalam syair
:ما حمّ من موت حمى واقيا۞ولا ترى من أحد بقيا·
Shohibul hal yang jatuh setelah Syibh nafi, Nahi :
:لاَ تَضْرِبْ رَجُلاً قَائِمًالايركنن أحد الى الاحجام۞يوم الوغى متخوفا لحمام
Istifham :هَلْ جَاءَ رَجُلٌ رَكِيبًايا صح هل حمّ عيش باقيا فترى۞لنفسك العذر فى ابعادها الأملا

E.PELETAKAN HAL
Hukum asalnya hal harus setelah Tamamul kalam yaitu hal berada setelah shohibul hal dan amilnya, sangat jelas sekali yang ditulis oleh Syaikh Al imam ash shonhaji:وَلَايَكُوْنُالحَالُاِلَّانَكِرَةًوَلَايَكُوْنُالَّابَعْدَتَمَامِالْكَلَامِوَلَايَكُوْنُصَاحِبُهَاالَّامَعْرِفَة·
Urutan shohibul hal dengan hal
Hal mendahului shohibul hal yang marfu’ dan mansub dihukumi boleh, seperti contohراكبا سعيدجاء
Hal mendahului shohibul hal dihukumi wajib ketika:
1.Shohibul hal berupa isim nakiroh yang tidak memenuhi syarat,contoh :جاء مسرعا رسول.
2.Shohibul hal di hasr(حصر) ,contoh:ماشيا الّا سليمماجاء.
3.Shohibul hal dimudhofkan pada pada dhomir yang kembali pada lafad yang punya korelasi dengan hal, contoh :وقف يخطب فى التلاميذ معلمهم
Shohibul hal mendahului hal( hal diakhirkan)dihukumi wajibketika:
1.Hal di hasr, contoh:(نرسل المرسلين الّا مبشرين و منذرين)الكهف: 56وما.
2.Shohibul hal dijerkan, contoh:بهند جالسةمررتTetapi menurut ibnu malik, alfarisi, ibnu kisandan ibnu burhan memperbolehkan hal mendahului hal dengan alasan ada syair:لئن كان برد الماء هيمان صاديا۞اليّ حبيبا انّها لحبيب.
3.Hal berupa jumlah dengan robit wawu, contoh:سافر الرسول وقد طلعت الشمس·


Urutan amil dan hal
Hukum asal hal itu diakhirkan dari amilnya tetapi terkadang boleh didahulukan sepeti yang dikemukakan ibnu malik dalam kitabnya :
ان ينصب بفعل صرفا۞أو صفة اشبهت المصرفوالحال
فجائز تقديمه كمسرعا۞ذا رحل ومخلصا زيد دعا
Mendahulukan hal atas amilnya dihukumi bolehdengan syarat :
1.Amil berupa fiil mutasorrif, contoh:(القمر:7أبصرهم يخرجون)خشّعا.
2.Amil berupa isim sifat, contoh: مسرعاذا رحل
Mendahulukan hal atas amilnya dihukumi wajibketika :
1.Hal berupa lafad yang wajib di dahulukan, contoh :رجع سليم ؟كيف.
2.Amil berupa isim tafdhil yang punya dua hal, yang melebihkan shohibul hal satu atas shohibul hal yang lain atau shohibul hal cuma satu yang melebihkan hal satu atas hal yang lain, contoh:خالد فقيرا اكرم من خليل غنيّاسعيد ساكتا خير منه متكلما.
3.Amil punya ma’na menyerupakan yang beramal pada dua hal, yaitu penyerupaan shohibul hal pertama dengan shohibul hal yang lain,[11]contoh:سليم ففيرا كزيد غنيّا
Mengakhirkan hal atas amilnya hukumnya wajib ketika :
1.Amil berupa fiil jamid, contoh :احسن الصديق وفيّاما.
2.Amil berupa masdar yang bisa ditaqdirkan dengan fiil dan huruf masdariyah, contoh:يعجبنى انجاز الصانع عمله سريعا.
3.Amil berupa isim fiil, contoh:اى انزلمسرعانزالِ.
4.Amil berupa ma’nawiyah(bermakna fiil tetapi tidak mencakup huruf fiil) yaitu isim isyaroh, huruf tamanni, tasbih, dhorof dan jer majrur, contoh:هذا كتابك جميلا اي اشير.
5.Amil hal kemasukan perkara yang mencegah dahulunya ma’mul, seperti fiil madhi yang di dahului lam ibtida’atau lam jawab qasam dan amil menjadi shilahnya al(ال) atau huruf masdariyah , contoh:والله لقد تحملت صابرا.
6.Hal berupa jumlah dengan rhobit wawu, contoh:الكتاب والنفس               صافيةاقرأ

F.MACAM-MACAM HAL
Ditinjau dari beberapa aspek, jenis hal banyak sekali. Diantaranyaditinjau dari segi bentuk mufrod atau jumlahdan ditinjau dari segi faidahnya .
1.Hal ditinjau dari bentuk lafadnya
ü Hal jumlah (serupa jumlah)
Hal itu lafadnya ada yang berbentuk mufrod(bukan jumlah) seperti contoh-contoh yang lalu. Dan juga ada hal yang berbentuk jumlah, baik dari jumlah ismiyah dan jumlah fi’liyah maupun yang serupa dengan jumlah yaitu dhorof dan jer majrur, yang mengandung robit yang menghubungkannya padashohibul halnya (baik berupa dhomir, wawu atau keduanya). Contoh:
a. Terdiri dari jumlah ismiyahجَاءَ زَيْدٌ وَهُوَ نَاوٍ رِحْلَةً
b. Terdiri dari jumlah fi’liyahوَجَاؤُوْا أَبَاهُمْ عِشَاءً يَبْكُوْنَ)يوسف :  16(
c.Terdiri dari dhorof atau jer majrurنظرت العصفورعلى الغصنرأيت الهلال بين السحاب
Hukum asal hal, khobar dan sifat adalah mufrod, tetapi yang selain mufrod yaitu berupa jumlah juga ada. Seperti juga khobar dan sifat yang berupa jumlah, hal jumlah wajib mempunyai robit. Yaitu: adakalnya berupa dhomir, wawu atau wawu dan dhomir.Jika hal berupa jumlah fi’liyah yang fi’ilnya berupa fi’il mudhari’musbat(tidak dinafikan), maka robithnya harus berupa dhomir (tidak boleh berupa wawu atau berupa wawu dan dlomir).
Jadi jika dalam kalimat bahasa Arab pada dhahirnya seakakan-akan robithnya berupa wawu, maka harus menaqdirkan mubtada’ yang dibuang dan jumlah yang jatuh setelahnya tersebut menjadi khabarnya.
Contoh:
→Robithnya berupa dlomirجَاءَ عَبْدُ اللهِ إِلَى الْمَعْهَدِ مَعَ أَصْحَابِهِ يَجْمِلُ كِتَابَ النَّحْوِ
→Robithnya berupa wawu dan mengira-ngirakan mubtada’قُمْتُ وَأَصُكُّ عَيْنَهُTaqdirnyaقُمْتُأَنَاوَأَصُكُّ عَيْنَهJika jumlah yang menjadi hal itu selain jumlah yang tersebut di atas (jadi terdiri dari jumlah ismiyah/fi’liyah yang fi’ilnya berupa fi’il madly atau berupa fi’il mudhari’ yang didahului oleh nafi), maka robithnya boleh berupa dlomir, wawu atau keduanya.
Contoh:
→Robithnya berupa dlomirقَامَ مُحَمَّدٌ يَدَهُعَلَى صَدْرِهِ→Robithnya berupa wawuجَاءَ مُحَمَّدٌوَقَدْتَدَبَّرَ
الطَّلَبَةُ عَلَى دِفَاعِ النَّفْسِ→ Robithnya berupa wawu dan dlomir.قَامَ مُحَمَّدٌوَيَدُهُعَلَى صَدْرِهِSyarat-syarat jumlah yang dijadikan hal ialah, sebagai berikut:
1) Harus terdiri dari dan jumlah khabariyah, tidak dari jumlahthalabiyah dan jumlah ta’ajjubiyah.
2) Tidak dimulai dengan alamat istiqlal (huruf-huruf yangmenunjukkan arti sesuatu yang akan datang).
3) Harus mengandung robith (penghubung) yang menghubungkan pada shohibul hal.
2.hal ditinjau dari faedahnya
Ü Mu’assisah : Haal yang untuk memperjelas kalam yang dirasa kurang sempurna bila kalam tersebut tidak mencantumkan Hal.
üMu’akkidah1
)      Mu’akkidah lil ‘Amil : posisi hal memperkuat makna ‘amil dalam mengutarakan kalam pada mukhottab,contoh :لاَ تَعْثَ فِي الاَ رْضِ مُفْسِدًاDalam contoh tersebut lafadzتَعْثَdanمُفْسِدًاialah bersinonim karena tujuan mengutarakan kalam tersebut ialah jangan berbuat kerusakan.
2)      Mu’akkidah lil Shohibil HaalContoh :قَامَ القَوْمُ كُلِّهِمْ جَمِيْعاًLafadzجَمِيْعاًberposisi memperkuat dhomirهُمْyang kembali pada lafadzاَلقَوْمُ)    
3. Mu’akkidah li madmunil jumlah qoblahaDalam penegasan ini Haal harus disimpan ‘amilnya dan lafadz Halnya harus berada di akhir (jatuh setelah jumlah). Contoh :اَنَا زَيْدٌ
مَعْرُوْفاً
Dalam contoh tersebut haal berposisi menguatkan jumlah sebelumnya sedang yang menashobkan haal ialah amil yangdisimpan yaituمَعْرُوْفاًاَحَق




IV.  PENUTUP
Dapat disimpulkan,dari penjelasan diatas sebagai berikut:
1.     Haal ialah isim mansub yang menerangkan prihal atau perilaku fa’il atau maf’ul bih yang masih samar.
2.     Shahibul haal adalah terdiri dari tarkib fa’il dan tarkib maf’ul bih.
3.     Syarat-syarat tarkibhaal, yaitu:
a.      Harus dengan isim nakirah, tidak bolehisim ma’rifat.
b.     Harus sesudah kalam yang sempurna
c.      Shahibul haal harus terdiri dari isim ma’rifat.
4.     Macam-macamhaal, yaitu:
a.      Haal berupa isim mufrad.
b.     Haal berupa jumlah ismiyyah.
c.      Haal berupa jumlah fi’liyah
d.     Haal berupa zharaf.
e.      Haal berupa jar dan majrur.
5.  Jika haal itu berupa jumlah, maka harus ada penghubung yang menyambungkan dengan shahibul haal, dan dia itu adakalanya berupa wawu saja atau berupa dlamir saja atau kedua-keduanya.
Demikialah makalah yang kami susun, kurang lebihnya kami minta maaf, kami merasa bahwa di dalam makalah ini masih banyak terdapat kekurangan, bahkan masih jauh dari sempurna, maka kami pemakalah berharap kritik dan saran yang membangun dan bermanfaat untuk para pemakalah begitu pula bagi teman-teman agar mewujudkan makalah yang lebih baik dan sempurna.Besar harapan kami semoga makalah yang singkat ini dapat bermanfaat bagi pembaca dan pemakalah sendiri.



DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Bahaud Din Abdullah ibnu ‘Aqil,Terj. Alfiyah Syarah Ibnu ‘Aqil Jilid 1, Bandung: Sinar Baru Algennsido, 2009Djawahir Djuha,Tata Bahasa Arab Ilmu Nahwu,Bandung: : Sinar Baru Algennsido, 1995Syekh Syamsuddin Muhammad Araa’ini, Ilmu Nahwu,Bandung:Sinar Baru Algennsido, 2010Iman Saiful Mu’minin,Kamus Ilmu Nahwu dan Shraf,

INTONATIONS ( Belajar Inggris )

Intonation (linguistics)
Global rise
Global fall
↗◌
↘◌


In linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch while speaking which is not used to distinguish words. It contrasts with tone, in which pitch variation does distinguish words. Intonation, rhythm, and stress are the three main elements of linguistic prosody. Intonation patterns in some languages, such as Swedish and Swiss German, can lead to conspicuous fluctuations in pitch, giving speech a sing-song quality.[1] Fluctuations in pitch either involve a rising pitch or a falling pitch. Intonation is found in every language and even in tonal languages, but the realisation and function are seemingly different. It is used in non-tonal languages to add attitudes to words (attitudinal function) and to differentiate between wh-questions, yes-no questions, declarative statements, commands, requests, etc. Intonation can also be used for discourse analysis where new information is realised by means of intonation. It can also be used for emphatic/contrastive purposes.
All languages use pitch pragmatically as intonation — for instance for emphasis, to convey surprise or irony, or to pose a question. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa use pitch for distinguishing words in addition to providing intonation.
Generally speaking, the following intonations are distinguished:
• Rising Intonation means the pitch of the voice increases over time [↗];
• Falling Intonation means that the pitch decreases with time [↘];
• Dipping Intonation falls and then rises [↘↗];
• Peaking Intonation rises and then falls [↗↘].
Those with congenital amusia show impaired ability to discriminate, identify and imitate the intonation of the final words in sentences.[2]
Contents
• 1 Transcription
• 2 Uses of intonation
• 3 Intonation in English
• 4 Intonation in French
o 4.1 Summary
o 4.2 Detail
 4.2.1 Continuation pattern
 4.2.2 Finality pattern
 4.2.3 Yes/no pattern
 4.2.4 Information question pattern
• 5 See also
• 6 References
[edit] Transcription
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, global rising and falling intonation are marked with a diagonal arrow rising left-to-right [↗] and falling left-to-right [↘], respectively. These may be written as part of a syllable, or separated with a space when they have a broader scope:
He found it on the street?
[ hiː ˈfaʊnd ɪt | ɒn ðə ↗ˈˈstɹiːt ‖ ]
Here the rising pitch on street indicates that the question hinges on that word, on where he found it, not whether he found it.
Yes, he found it on the street.
[↘ˈjɛs ‖ hi ˈfaʊnd ɪt | ɒn ðə ↘ˈstɹiːt ‖ ]
How did you ever escape?
[↗ˈˈhaʊ dɪdjuː | ˈɛvɚ | ə↘ˈˈskeɪp ‖ ]
Here, as is common with wh- questions, there is a rising intonation on the question word, and a falling intonation at the end of the question.
More detailed transcription systems for intonation have also been developed, such as ToBI (Tones and Break Indices), RaP (Rhythm and Pitch), and INTSINT [3].
[edit] Uses of intonation
The uses of intonation can be divided into six categories:[4]
• informational: for example, in English I saw a ↘man in the garden answers "Who did you see?" or "What happened?", while I ↘saw a man in the garden answers "Did you hear a man in the garden?"
• grammatical: for example, in English a rising pitch turns a statement into a yes-no question, as in He's going ↗home? This use of intonation to express grammatical mood is its primary grammatical use (though whether this grammatical function actually exists is controversial).[4]:pp.140, 151 Some languages, like Chickasaw and Kalaallisut, have the opposite pattern from English: rising for statements and falling with questions.
• illocution: the intentional force is signaled in, for example, English Why ↘don't you move to California? (a question) versus Why don't you ↗move to California? (a suggestion).
• attitudinal: high declining pitch signals more excitement than does low declining pitch, as in English Good ↗morn↘ing versus Good morn↘ing.
• textual: linguistic organization beyond the sentence is signaled by the absence of a statement-ending decline in pitch, as in English The lecture was canceled [high pitch on both syllables of "canceled", indicating continuation]; the speaker was ill. versus The lecture was can↘celed. [high pitch on first syllable of "canceled", but declining pitch on the second syllable, indicating the end of the first thought] The speaker was ill.
• indexical: group membership can be indicated by the use of intonation patterns adopted specifically by that group, such as street vendors, preachers, and possibly women in some cases (see high rising terminal.)
[edit] Intonation in English
Halliday and Greaves[5] have made a detailed case that three types of meanings—textual, interpersonal, and logical—are all in part achieved through intonation. This is done, they have argued, through the choices we make in terms of (i) rising and falling pitch contour, (ii) where we locate that contour as part of a clause, throughout a whole clause, or over more than a single clause; and (iii) the shape of the contour.
According to some accounts, American English pitch has four levels: low (1), middle (2), high (3), and very high (4). Normal conversation is usually at middle or high pitch; low pitch occurs at the end of utterances other than yes-no questions, while high pitch occurs at the end of yes-no questions. Very high pitch is for strong emotion or emphasis.[1]:p.184 Pitch can indicate attitude: for example, Great uttered in isolation can indicate weak emotion (with pitch starting medium and dropping to low), enthusiasm (with pitch starting very high and ending low), or sarcasm (with pitch starting and remaining low).
Declarative sentences show a 2-3-1 pitch pattern. If the last syllable is prominent the final decline in pitch is a glide. For example, in This is fun, this is is at pitch 2, and fun starts at level 3 and glides down to level 1. But if the last prominent syllable is not the last syllable of the utterance, the pitch fall-off is a step. For example, in That can be frustrating, That can be has pitch 2, frus- has level 3, and both syllables of -trating have pitch 1.[1]:p.185 Wh-questions work the same way, as in Who (2) will (2) help (3↘1)? and Who (2) did (3) it (1)?
But if something is left unsaid, the final pitch level 1 is replaced by pitch 2. Thus in John's (2) sick (3↘2) ..., with the speaker indicating more to come, John's has pitch 2 while sick starts at pitch 3 and drops only to pitch 2.
Yes-no questions with a 2↗3 intonation pattern[3] usually have subject-verb inversion, as in Have (2) you (2) got (2) a (2) minute (3, 3)? (Here a 2↗4 contour would show more emotion, while a 1↗2 contour would show uncertainly.) Another example is Has (2) the (2) plane (3) left (3) already (3, 3, 3)?, which, depending on the word to be emphasized, could move the location of the rise, as in Has (2) the (2) plane (2) left (3) already (3, 3, 3)? or Has (2) the (2) plane (2) left (2) already (2, 3, 3)? And for example the latter question could also be framed without subject-verb inversion but with the same pitch contour: The (2) plane (2) has (2) left (2) already (2, 3, 3)?
Tag questions with declarative intent at the end of a declarative statement follow a 3↘1 contour rather than a rising contour, since they are not actually intended as yes-no questions, as in We (2) should (2) visit (3, 1) him (1), shouldn't (3, 1) we (1)? But tag questions exhibiting uncertainty, which are interrogatory in nature, have the usual 2↗3 contour, as in We (2) should (2) visit (3, 1) him (1), shouldn't (3, 3) we (3)?
Questions with or can be ambiguous in English writing with regard to whether they are either-or questions or yes-no questions. But intonation in speech eliminates the ambiguity. For example, Would (2) you (2) like (2) juice (3) or (2) soda (3, 1)? emphasizes juice and soda separately and equally and ends with a decline in pitch, thus indicating that this is not a yes-no question but rather a choice question equivalent to Which would you like: juice or soda? In contrast, Would (2) you (2) like (2) juice (3) or (3) soda (3, 3)? has yes-no intonation and thus is equivalent to Would you like something to drink (such as juice or soda)?
Thus the two basic sentence pitch contours are rising-falling and rising. However, other within-sentence rises and falls result from the placement of prominence on the stressed syllables of certain words.
Note that for declaratives or wh-questions with a final decline, the decline is located as a step-down to the syllable after the last prominently stressed syllable, or as a down-glide on the last syllable itself if it is prominently stressed. But for final rising pitch on yes-no questions, the rise always occurs as an upward step to the last stressed syllable, and the high (3) pitch is retained through the rest of the sentence.
Pitch also plays a role in distinguishing acronyms that might otherwise be mistaken for common words. For example, in the phrase "Nike asks that you PLAY—Participate in the Lives of America's Youth",[6] the acronym PLAY may be pronounced with a high tone to distinguish it from the verb 'play', which would also make sense in this context. Alternatively, each letter could be said individually, so PLAY might become "P-L-A-Y" or "P.L.A.Y.". However, the high tone is only employed for disambiguation and is therefore contrastive intonation rather than true lexical tone.
Dialects of British and Irish English vary substantially,[7] with rises on many statements in urban Belfast, and falls on most questions in urban Leeds. [3]
[edit] Intonation in French
[edit] Summary
French intonation differs substantially from that of English.[8] There are four primary patterns.
• The continuation pattern is a rise in pitch occurring in the last syllable of a rhythm group (typically a phrase).
• The finality pattern is a sharp fall in pitch occurring in the last syllable of a declarative statement.
• The yes/no intonation is a sharp rise in pitch occurring in the last syllable of a yes/no question.
• The information question intonation is a rapid fall-off from high pitch on the first word of a non-yes/no question, often followed by a small rise in pitch on the last syllable of the question.
[edit] Detail
[edit] Continuation pattern
The most distinctive feature of French intonation is the continuation pattern. While many languages, such as English and Spanish, place stress on a particular syllable of each word, and while many speakers of languages such as English may accompany this stress with a rising intonation, French has neither stress nor distinctive intonation on a given syllable. Instead, on the final syllable of every "rhythm group" except the last one in a sentence, there is placed a rising pitch. For example[8]:p.35 (note that as before the pitch change arrows ↘ and ↗ apply to the syllable immediately following the arrow):
• Hier ↗soir, il m'a off↗ert une ciga↘rette. (The English equivalent would be "Last eve↗ning, he offered ↗me a cigar↘ette.")
• Le lendemain ma↗tin, après avoir changé le pansement du ma↗lade, l'infir↗mier est ren↗tré chez ↘lui.
Adjectives are in the same rhythm group as their noun. Each item in a list forms its own rhythm group:
• Chez le frui↗tier on trouve des ↗pommes, des o↗ranges, des ba↗nanes, des ↗fraises et des abri↘cots.
Side comments inserted into the middle of a sentence form their own rhythm group:
• La grande ↗guerre, si j'ai bonne mé↗moire, a duré quatre ↘ans.
[edit] Finality pattern
As can be seen in the example sentences above, a sharp fall in pitch is placed on the last syllable of a declarative statement. The preceding syllables of the final rhythm group are at a relatively high pitch.
[edit] Yes/no pattern
It is most common in informal speech to indicate a yes/no question with a sharply rising pitch alone, without any change or rearrangement of words. For example[8]:p.65
• Il est ↗riche?
A form found in both spoken and written French is the Est-ce que ... ("Is it that ...") construction, in which the spoken question can end in either a rising or a falling pitch:
• Est-ce qu'il est ↗riche? OR Est-ce qu'il est ↘riche?
The most formal form for a yes/no question, which is also found in both spoken and written French, inverts the order of the subject and verb. In this case too the spoken question can end in either a rising or a falling pitch:
• Est-il ↗riche? OR Est-il ↘riche?
Sometimes yes/no questions begin with a topic phrase, specifying the focus of the utterance. In this case the initial topic phrase follows the intonation pattern of a declarative sentence, and the rest of the question follows the usual yes/no question pattern:[8]:p.78
• Et cette pho↘to, tu l'as ↗prise?
[edit] Information question pattern
Information questions begin with a question word such as qui, pourquoi, combien,, etc., often referred to in linguistics as wh-words because most of them start with those letters in English. The question word is followed in French by est-ce que (as in English "(where) is it that ...") or est-ce qui, or by inversion of the subject-verb order (as in "(where) goes he?"). The sentence starts at a relatively high pitch which falls away rapidly on the last syllable of the question word, and there may be a small increase in pitch on the final syllable of the question. For example:[8]:p.88
• ↘Où part-il? OR ↘Où part-↗il?
• ↘Où est-ce qu'il part? OR ↘Où est-ce qu'il ↗part?
In both cases, the question both begins and ends at higher pitches than does a declarative sentence.
In informal speech, the question word is sometimes put at the end of the sentence, in which case the question starts and ends at a high pitch, often with a slight rise on the high final syllable:[8]:p.90
• Il part ↗où?

Intonation
Intonation is crucial for communication. It's also a largely unconscious mechanism, and as such, a complex aspect of pronunciation. It's no surprise that many teachers don't feel confident about tackling it in the classroom. When teaching grammar or lexis, we find ways of making the language accessible to our learners. How then to do this with intonation?
• What is intonation?
• Why teach intonation?
• Can I improve my own awareness of intonation?
• How I help my students:
o Awareness-raising
o Intonation and grammar
o Intonation and attitudes
o Intonation and discourse
• Conclusion

What is intonation?
Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say. Without intonation, it's impossible to understand the expressions and thoughts that go with words.
Listen to somebody speaking without paying attention to the words: the 'melody' you hear is the intonation. It has the following features:

• It's divided into phrases, also known as 'tone-units'.
• The pitch moves up and down, within a 'pitch range'. Everybody has their own pitch range. Languages, too, differ in pitch range. English has particularly wide pitch range.
• In each tone unit, the pitch movement (a rise or fall in tone, or a combination of the two) takes place on the most important syllable known as the 'tonic-syllable'. The tonic-syllable is usually a high-content word, near the end of the unit.
• These patterns of pitch variation are essential to a phrase's meaning. Changing the intonation can completely change the meaning.

Example:
o Say: 'It's raining'.
o Now say it again using the same words, but giving it different meaning. You could say it to mean 'What a surprise!', or 'How annoying!',or 'That's great!'. There are many possibilities.

Why teach intonation?
Intonation exists in every language, so the concept we're introducing isn't new. However, learners are often so busy finding their words that intonation suffers. Yet intonation can be as important as word choice - we don't always realise how much difference intonation makes:

• Awareness of intonation aids communication.
• Incorrect intonation can result in misunderstandings, speakers losing interest or even taking offence!

Though it's unlikely our learners will need native-speaker-level pronunciation, what they do need is greater awareness of intonation to facilitate their speaking and listening.

Can I improve my own awareness of intonation?
It's difficult to hear our own intonation. Choose somebody to listen to closely: as you listen, visualise the melody in your head, 'seeing' how it's divided into tone-units. Next time you do a class speaking activity, focus on your students' intonation. Are there students whose language is 'correct', but something doesn't sound right? Do they come across as boring or insincere? It may well be their pitch range isn't varied enough.

How I help my students
Awareness-raising
Some techniques I find useful for raising learners' awareness of intonation:
• Provide learners with models - don't be afraid to exaggerate your intonation.
• Let students compare two examples of the same phrase, eg: varied/flat intonation, English / L1.
• Ask students to have a 2-minute conversation in pairs as 'robots' (elicit the word using a picture if necessary), i.e. with no intonation. When they then go back to speaking 'normally', point out that the difference is made by intonation - this is what gives movement to our voices.
• Get students to imitate my intonation, but without words, just humming.

Intonation doesn't exist in isolation. So it makes sense to approach it together with other factors.

Intonation and grammar
Where patterns associating intonation and grammar are predictable, I highlight these to my students. I see these as starting-points, rather than rules.
Some examples are:
• Wh-word questions: falling intonation
• Yes/No questions: rising
• Statements: falling
• Question-Tags: 'chat' - falling; 'check' - rising
• Lists: rising, rising, rising, falling

When practising these constructions, I include activities focusing specifically on intonation.
For example, Question-Tags: Students in groups are assigned jobs to mime to each other. Students make notes about what they think each person's job is. They then have to check they've understood the jobs: Students use rising/falling intonation question-tags depending how sure they are: 'You're a pilot, aren't you?'. At the end, students confirm their jobs.
Intonation and attitude
It's important that students are aware of the strong link between intonation and attitude, even if it's difficult to provide rules here.
• The first thing is for learners to recognise the effect of intonation changes. I say the word 'bananas' - firstly with an 'interested' intonation (varied tone); then 'uninterested' (flat). Students identify the two and describe the difference. We then brainstorm attitudes, such as 'enthusiastic', 'bored', 'surprised', 'relieved'. I say 'bananas' for these. Students then do the same in pairs, guessing each other's attitude.
• This can be developed by asking students to 'greet' everybody with a particular attitude. At the end, the class identify each person's attitude. For younger learners, I use 'Mr Men' characters (Miss Happy, Mr Grumpy, Miss Frightened, etc.) Each student is allocated a character and, as above, they greet the class with that character's voice.

Intonation and discourse
Learners' also need awareness of intonation in longer stretches of language. Here, we can give our learners clearer guidelines: 'new' information = fall tone; 'shared' knowledge = 'fall-rise'.
A simple shopping dialogue demonstrates this:
SK: Can I help you?
C: I'd like a chocolate (fall) ice-cream.
SK: One chocolate (fall-rise) ice-cream. Anything else?
C: One strawberry (fall) ice-cream.
SK: One chocolate (fall), one strawberry (fall). Anything else?
C: Yes. One chocolate (fall), one strawberry (fall), and one vanilla (fall-rise).
Higher level students can identify the 'new' / 'shared' information, and then practise reading accordingly.
With lower level students, we memorise the dialogue together. Although I don't refer to intonation directly, I use my hands to indicate it (fall = hand pointing down; fall-rise = down then up). Students then prepare their own dialogues. I've found my learners pick up these patterns very quickly.

Conclusion
When working on intonation in the classroom I:
• Remember that intonation is relevant to any speaking activity, and makes interesting remedial/revision work.
• Remember that students don't always have to 'know' we're focusing on intonation: every time I drill phrases they're hearing intonation models.
• Provide realistic and clear contexts.
• Avoid going into theory.
• Help students find patterns / rules-of-thumb, wherever possible.
• Use a consistent system for marking intonation on the board for example: arrow for tone; tonic-syllable in CAPITALS; double lines ( // ) for tone-unit boundaries.
• Keep it positive and don't expect perfection. The last thing I'd want is to make my students so anxious about their intonation that they stop speaking!

















Rising intonation is used when asking questions and for exclamatory sentences.
An exclamatory sentence is one that shows excitement or emotion such as, "He just won first place!", and "We are the new champions!"
Intonation falls for declarative statements such as, "The capital of Florida is Tallahasse."
Relevant answers:
• When to use rising intonation
Well, when you're cake won't rise, rising intonation is perfect. Yeast doesn't always work, because it's expensive and can make your cake lose flavour. I recommend Walmart's Rising Intonation for all...
• What is the meaning of rising and falling intonation
Falling intonation is a sentence that is answerable by a sentence or statement,while,rising intonation is answerable by yes and no.
• What is Different rising and falling intonation
The different intonation are GLIDE and Shift hope it is the answer!!!!!!!!!!
• When do you use rising intonation
When speaking interrogatively.
RISING INTONATION- IS ANSWERABLE BY YES OR NO

1.Do you think his funny?
2.Is your father handsome?
3.Can you sing?
4.Is this your school?
5.Do you eat Adobo?

FALLING INTONATION- IS A SENTENCE, A QUESTION THAT IS NOT ANSWERABLE BY YES OR NO..................But it is answerable by a sentence or a statement.

1.What is the brand of your pencil?
2What is your Sister's name?
3.What is the 4 fundamental oppertions?
4.My sister is hard working.
5.What's your name?
Relevant answers:
• What are examples of rising and falling intonation
Examples: 1. Who is he? Falling intonation / Wh-question 2. Is she here? Rising intonation / Yes/No or polarity type Question 3. You´re going aren´t you? Rising intonation / Tag-question 4. You...
• What example falling intonation
i cook the best food
• When do we use falling intonation and rising intonation
Rising intonation is used when asking questions and for exclamatory sentences. An exclamatory sentence is one that shows excitement or emotion such as, "He just won first place!", and "We are the...
• Give you an example of rising intonation
In English, speakers raise intonation when asking a question.
• Example of rising intonation question
questions starting with wh like: who, what, where, how, and why are falling intonation. examples: what's your nam? Where do you live? who are your parents? how old are you? why are you here?...









Teaching English Intonation to EFL/ESL Students
This article proposes a workable, teachable, generalisable as well as communicatively efficient framework for the teaching of the intonation of English to non-native speakers of English. It is proposed that a framework of English intonation should include four major intonational features: intonation units, stress, tones, and pitch range. Consequently, the phenomena of intonation in English should have a piece of utterance, intonation unit, as its basis to study all kinds of voice movements and features. Every intonation unit has a type of tonic stress: (unmarked) utterance-final tonic stress, or emphatic, or contrastive, or new information stress, the last of which is more frequently used in utterances given to wh-questions. Further, intonation units have typically one of these tones; fall, low-rise, high-rise, and fall-rise. Tones are assigned to intonation units in relation to the type of voice movement on the tonic syllable. Finally, all intonation units have to be spoken in one of the three pitch levels (keys): high, mid, and low.
Introduction
At a time when the language learning task is geared to instant interpersonal communication with efficiency and precision, the intonation phenomena could not have gone unnoticed in the preparation of English teaching syllabuses in the threshold of a new millennium. What to include and what not to in the teaching of intonation to learners of English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) has caused uncertainty and lack of confidence, and consequently ignoring of the intonation in syllabuses to a great extent, which is, as Underhill (1994:75) rightly notes, because '...we are not in control of a practical, workable and trustworthy system through which we can make intonation comprehensible.'
A major feature of communication, suprasegmental (prosodic) features of speech have usually been avoided in the design of syllabuses for teaching English, partly due to the unduly little importance attached to the teaching of them, and partly due to the unavailability of a concise, salient, practical, and workable framework (Underhill, 1994:47; Kenworthy, 1987). There are some attempts, of course, to come up with a scheme that is practical. However, they usually concentrate on certain areas of intonation rather than embracing the whole phenomenon of intonation (Coulthard, 1977; Underhill, 1994; Levis, 1999). Levis (1999), for instance, falls short of providing a coherent scheme by which foreign language teachers can utilize in their syllabuses for improving oral skills; it studies, in passing, intonational features such as significant pitch, pitch levels, intonation patterns, and placement of nuclear stress.
For Cruttenden (1986:35), intonation has three important features: 1) : division of a (dividing) a stream of speech into intonation units, 2) selection of a syllable (of a word), which is assigned the 'tonic' status, and 3) selection of a tone for the intonation unit To this list, another feature can be added: pitch range, or key (Brazil et al., 1980). In the experience of the present author in teaching oral skills to prospective teachers of English as a second/foreign language, a conception incorporating these four major features of intonation in the teaching syllabus has efficiently worked and proved very useful. This system, it is believed, may prove to be useful for other practitioners in the field of ESL/EFL.
This article explains the four major features in the teaching of English suprasegmentals: intonation units, stress, tone, and pitch range by reviewing relevant and current research. As such, this article provides a framework of English intonation for the teaching of English as a second/foreign language. What the framework proposes is primarily based on what is most salient in the more recent scholarly studies of intonation phenomena, and secondarily, on what can be teachable given the author's own experience in the teaching of the phenomena. Later, the need to teach intonational features in meaningful contexts with realistic language rather than fabricated language as well as the need to consider intonation, not as a luxury but a necessity for an efficient interchange in English is pointed out.
Intonation Units
An 'intonation unit' is a piece of utterance, a continuous stream of sounds, bounded by a fairly perceptible pause. Pausing in some sense is a way of packaging the information such that the lexical items put together in an intonation unit form certain psychological and lexic~grammatical realities. Typical examples would be the inclusion of subordinate clauses and prepositional phrases in intonation units.
It is proposed here that any feature of intonation should be analyzed and discussed against a background of this phenomenon: tonic stress placement, choke of tones and keys are applicable to almost all intonation units. Closely related with the notion of pausing is that a change of meaning may be brought about; certain pauses in a stream of speech can have significant meaning variations in the message to be conveyed. Consider the example below, in which slashes correspond to pauses (Roach, 1983:146) (see Halliday, 1967; Leech & Svartvik, 1975 for more): the meaning is given in brackets.
• Those who sold quickly / made a profit
(A profit is made by those who sold quickly.)
• Those who sold / quickly made a profit
(A profit was quickly made by those who sold.)
More examples can be used in order to illustrate the significance of pausing, and further, it can be pointed out that right pausing may become a necessity to understand and to be understood well.
Stress
This section addresses the notion of stress in words as perceived in connected speech. In addition, the existence and discovery of tonic stress is discussed, and the major types of stress are explicated. Four major types of stress are identified:
• unmarked tonic stress
• emphatic stress
• contrastive stress
• new information stress
An important prosodic feature, 'stress' applies to individual syllables, and involves, most commonly, loudness, length, and higher pitch (Roach, 1983:73). Each of these features may contribute in differing degrees at different times. Stress is an essential feature of word identity in English (Kenworthy, 1987:18). It is evident that not all syllables of a polysyllabic English word receive the same level of stress; in connected speech, usually two levels of stress appear to be perceptible, to non-native speakers in particular, regardless of the number of syllables: stressed and unstressed (Ladefoged, 1973; Kenworthy, 1987). What is known as the primary stress is regarded as the stressed syllable while the rest, secondary, tertiary, and weak, are rendered as unstressed syllables.
At the clausal level, normally, words that carry higher information content in the utterance are given higher stress than those carrying lower input (information) and those that are predictable in the context. It is generally the case that one word is stressed more than any other since it possesses the highest information content for the discourse utterance, that is, it informs the hearer most. The group of words described above are largely from what is called 'content' words as opposed to 'function' words. Content words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs while function words are articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and modal auxiliaries. Furthermore, it is content words that are polysyllabic, not function words. This classification conforms to grammatical considerations. The classification we present here from a suprasegmental viewpoint, that is on the basis of being stressed or not, is slightly different from that of grammar. Consider the following:
Content/Stressed Words Function/Unstressed Words
verbs modal auxiliaries
nouns articles
adjectives conjunctions
adverbs prepositions
question words pronouns
prepositional adverbs
negatives
In other words, the items on the left hand column are stressable in unmarked utterances whereas the ones on the right column are not.
Tonic Stress
An intonation unit almost always has one peak of stress, which is called 'tonic stress', or 'nucleus'. Because stress applies to syllables, the syllable that receives the tonic stress is called 'tonic syllable'. The term tonic stress is usually preferred to refer to this kind of stress in referring, proclaiming, and reporting utterances. Tonic stress is almost always found in a content word in utterance final position. Consider the following, in which the tonic syllable is underlined:
• I'm going.
• I'm going to London.
• I'm going to London for a holiday.
A question does arise as to what happens to the previously tonic assigned syllables. They still get stressed, however, not as much as the tonic syllable, producing a three level stress for utterances. Then, the following is arrived at., where the tonic syllable is further capitalized:
• I'm going to London for HOliday.
Emphatic Stress
One reason to move the tonic stress from its utterance final position is to assign an emphasis to a content word, which is usually a modal auxiliary, an intensifier, an adverb, etc. Compare the following examples. The first two examples are adapted from. Roach (1983:144).
i. It was very BOring. (unmarked)
ii. It was VEry boring. (emphatic)

i. You mustn't talk so LOUDly. (unmarked)
ii. You MUSTN'T talk so loudly. (emphatic)
Some intensifying adverbs and modifiers (or their derivatives) that are emphatic by nature are (Leech & Svartvik, 1.975:135):
indeed, utterly, absolute, terrific, tremendous, awfully, terribly, great, grand, really, definitely, truly, literally, extremely, surely, completely, barely, entirely, very (adverb), very (adjective), quite, too, enough, pretty, far, especially, alone, only, own, -self.
Contrastive Stress
In contrastive contexts, the stress pattern is quite different from the emphatic and non-emphatic stresses in that any lexical item in an utterance can receive the tonic stress provided that the contrastively stressed item can be contrastable in that universe of speech. No distinction exists between content and function words regarding this. The contrasted item receives the tonic stress provided that it is contrastive with some lexical element (notion.) in the stimulus utterance. Syllables that are normally stressed in the utterance almost always get the same treatment they do in non-emphatic contexts. Consider the following examples:
a) Do you like this one or THAT one?
b) I like THIS one.
Many other larger contrastive contexts (dialogues) can be found or worked out, or even selected from literary works for a study of contrastive stress. Consider the following:
•  She played the piano yesterday. (It was her who...)
•  She played the piano yesterday. (She only played (not. harmed) ...)
•  She played the piano yesterday. (It was the piano that...)
•  She played the piano yesterday. (It was yesterday...)
New Information Stress
In a response given to a wh-question, the information supplied, naturally enough, is stressed,. That is, it is pronounced with more breath force, since it is more prominent against a background given information in the question. The concept of new information is much clearer to students of English in responses to wh-questions than in declarative statements. Therefore, it is best to start with teaching the stressing of the new information supplied to questions with a question word:
a) What's your NAME
b) My name's GEORGE.
a) Where are you FROM?
b) I'm from WALES.
a) Where do you LIVE
b) I live in BONN
a) When does the school term END
b) It ends in MAY.
a) What do you DO
b) I'm a STUdent.

The questions given above could also be answered in short form except for the last one, in which case the answers are:
• George,
• Wales,
• in Bonn
• in May
In other words, 'given' information is omitted, not repeated. In the exchange:
a) What's your name?
b) (My name's) George.
The 'new' information in this response is 'George.' The part referring to his name is given in the question, so it may be omitted.
Regarding the significance of new information declarative statements, Ladefoged (1982:100) states:
'In general, new information is more likely to receive a tonic accent than material that has already been mentioned. The topic of a sentence is less likely to receive the tonic accent than the comment that is made on the topic.'
Furthermore, Bolinger (1968:603) notes that speakers '...depend on stress to highlight the most important and informative idea in the sentence.' (the italics is original). I think that Bolinger's 'the most important and informative idea' coincides with the concept of 'new information'. So the stressed lexical item is that which carries the information enveloping communicative intent and purpose. The information in the stressed item is the core of the message within the utterance. Therefore, it is the most important element in the utterance. Consider the following example taken from Dickerson (1989:20, cited in Levis, 1999:45):
a) It sounds like there was some excitement last night.
b) Didn't you hear? There was a torNAdo in the area.
Here in this example, the most prominent information appears to be stored in 'tornado' rather than the last content word in the utterance, as expected according to the guidelines given in 2.1 above.
Tone
A unit of speech bounded by pauses has movement, of music and rhythm, associated with the pitch of voice (Roach, 1983:113). This certain pattern of voice movement is called 'tone'. A tone is a certain pattern, not an arbitrary one, because it is meaningful in discourse. By means of tones, speakers signal whether to refer, proclaim, agree, disagree, question or hesitate, or indicate completion and continuation of turn-taking, in speech.
Pointing to extensive variations in the taxonomy of English tones, Cruttenden (1986:58) rightly notes that 'This is an area where almost every analyst varies in his judgement of what constitutes a 'major difference of meaning' and hence in the number of nuclear tones which are set up.' He adds: '...intonational meanings are often so intangible and nebulous ... (that) it is difficult to see how a wholly convincing case for any one set of nuclear tones..' (parenthetical statement is mine). Crystal (1969) and Ladefoged (1982) identify four basic tones (fall, rise-fall, rise, and fail-rise) while O'Connor and Arnold (1973) distinguish only two (rise and fall). Brazil et al. (1980) and Roach (1983) endorse five tones (fall, rise, rise-fall, fall-rise, and level) whereas Cruttenden (1986) recognizes seven tones (high-fall, low-fall, high-rise, low-rise, fail-rise, rise-fall, and mid-level).
It appeared in the author's teaching experience that only four types of tones can be efficiently taught to non-native speakers of English:
• fall
• low-rise
• high-rise
• fall-rise
What makes a tone a rising or failing or any other type of tone is the direction of the pitch movement on the last stressed (tonic) syllable (Brown, 1977:45). If the tonic syllable is in non-final position, the glide continues over the rest of the syllables. A fall in pitch on the tonic syllable renders the tone as 'fall'. A 'rise' tone is one in which the tonic syllable is the start of an upward glide of pitch. This glide is of two kinds; if the upward movement is higher, then it is 'high rise'; if it is lower, then it is 'low rise'. 'Fall-rise' has first a pitch fall and then a rise.
Fall (A Falling Tone)
A falling tone is by far the most common used tone of all. It signals a sense of finality, completion, belief in the content of the utterance, and so on. A speaker, by choosing a falling tone, also indicates to the addressee that that is all he has to say, and offers a chance (turn-taking) to the addressee to comment on, agree or disagree with, or add to his utterance.  However, it is up to the addressee to do either of these. This tone does in no way solicit a response from the addressee. Nonetheless, it would be polite for the addressee to at least acknowledge in some manner or form that he is part of the discourse. Now, let us see the areas in which a failing tone is used. The following is a proclamation in which a teacher is informing a student of the consequences of his unacceptable behavior.
•  I'll report you to the HEADmaster
A falling tone may be used in referring expressions as well.
•  I've spoken with the CLEAner.
Questions that begin with wh-questions are generally pronounced with a falling tone:
•  Where is the PENcil?
Imperative statements have a falling tone.
i) Go and see a DOCtor.
ii) Take a SEAT.
Requests or orders have a falling tone too.
i) Please sit DOWN
ii) Call him IN.
Exclamations:
•  Watch OUT!
Yes/No questions and tag questions seeking or expecting confirmation can be uttered with a falling tone. And the response to it may be lengthened. Consider the following example:
a) You like it, DON'T you?
b) YEES.
In a Yes/No question structure, if the speaker uses a falling tone, we assume that he already knows the answer, or at least he is sure that he knows, and the purpose of asking the question, as far as the speaker is concerned, is to put the answer on record. In the following exchange, the speaker is sure to get a 'Yes' answer from the addressee:
a) Have you MET him?
b) YES.
Low Rise (A Rising Tone)
This tone is used in genuine 'Yes/No' questions where the speaker is sure that he does not know the answer, and that the addressee knows the answer. Such Yes/No questions are uttered with a rising tone. For instance, consider the following question uttered with a rising tone, the answer of which could be either of the three options:
A) Isn't he NICE
B) i) Yes.
ii) No.
iii) I don't know.
Compare the above example with the following example, which is uttered with a falling tone, and which can only have one appropriate answer in the context:
a) Isn't he NICE
b) YES.
Other examples which are uttered with a rising tone are:
•  Do you want some COFfee?
•  Do you take CREAM in your coffee?
High Rise (A Rising Tone)
If the tonic stress is uttered with extra pitch height, as in the following intonation units, we may think that the speaker is asking for a repetition or clarification, or indicating disbelief.
a) I'm taking up TAxidermy this autumn.
b) Taking up WHAT? (clarification)
a) She passed her DRIving test.
b) She PASSED? (disbelief)
Fall Rise (followed by Fall)
While the three tones explicated so far can be used in independent, single intonation units, the fourth tone, fail-rise, appears to be generally used in what may be called 'dependent' intonation units such as those involving sentential adverbs, subordinate clauses, compound sentences, and so on. Fall-rise signals dependency, continuity, and non-finality (Cruttenden, 1986:102). It generally occurs in sentence non-final intonation units. Consider the following in which the former of the intonation units are uttered with a fall-rise tone (the slash indicates a pause):
•  Private enterPRISE / is always EFficient.
•  A quick tour of the CIty / would be NICE.
•  PreSUmably / he thinks he CAN.
•  Usually / he comes on SUNday.
One of the most frequent complex clause types in English is one that has dependent (adverbial or subordinate) clause followed by an independent (main) clause. When such a clause has two intonation units, the first, non-final, normally has a fall-rise while the second, final, has falling tone. Therefore, the tone observed in non-final intonation units can be said to have a 'dependency' tone, which is fall-rise (The explication of tone patterns as well as some of the examples in this section are largely based on Cruttenden, 1986). Consider the following:
•  When I passed my REAding test / I was VEry happy.
•  If you SEE him / give my MESsage.
When the order of complex clause is reversed, we may still observe the pattern fall-rise and fall respectively, as in
•  I WON'T deliver the goods / unless I receive the PAYment.
•  The moon revolves around the EARTH / as we ALLknow.
•  Private enterprise is always EFficient / whereas public ownership means INefficient.
All in all, final intonation units have a falling tone while non-final ones have fall-rise. Consider further complex clauses:
•  He joined the ARmy / and spent all his time in ALdershot.
•  My sister who is a NURSE / has ONE child.
This completes the four major tones selected for the framework. As is the case in this section, some of these tones can be used in combination when a syntactic unit (sentence) has more than one intonation unit. This section has reviewed the (fall-rise + fall) and (fall + fall-rise) patterns. In the following two sections, two patterns, namely (fall-rise + low rise) and (fall + fall), are examined respectively.
Fall-rise + Low Rise
Typically this tone pattern involves a dependent clause followed by a Yes/No question.
•  If I HELPED you / would you try aGAIN?
•  Despite its DRAWbacks / do you favor it or NOT?
Fall + Fall
A fall tone can be followed by another fall tone when the speaker expects or demands agreement as in tag questions.
•  It's a bit TOO good to be true / ISN'T it?
Reinforcing adverbials can also have a fall when place utterance finally as an expression of after-thought.
•  Ann said she'd help as much as she COULD / NATUrally.
If the two actions are part of a sequence of related events, it has (fall + fall) tone pattern, as in the following in which the information in the first intonation unit and the one in the second one do not have dependency:
•  She's 28 years OLD / and lives in GiPPSland.
Pitch and Pitch Range (Key)
Pitch is one of the acoustic correlates of stress (Underhill 1994:57). From a physiological point of view, '...pitch is primarily dependent on the rate of vibration of vocal cords... (Cruttenden, 1986:3). When the vocal cords are stretched, the pitch of voice increases. Pitch variations in speech are realized by the alteration of the tension of vocal cords (Ladefoged, 1982:226). The rate of vibration in vocal cords is increased by more air pressure from the lungs. In an overwhelming majority of syllables that are stressed, a higher pitch is observed. Therefore, loudness to a certain extent contributes to the make-up of pitch. That is, higher pitch is heard louder than lower pitch. Further, syllable length tends to contribute to the perception of the utterance-final tonic stress more than pitch because of the natural decline of speech force as it comes to conclusion, contrary to acoustic facts (Levis, 1999:42).
The term 'key' can be described as utterance pitch; specific and/or meaningful sequences of pitches in an intonation unit. Keys that are linguistically meaningful and significant are worth being included in a syllabus. For a key to be significant, 1) it should be under speaker's control, 2) it should be perceptible to ordinary speakers, and 3) it should represent a contrast (Roach, 1983:113). Usually, three keys are identified: high, mid, and low (Coulthard, 1977; Brazil et al., 1980).
For each intonation unit, speaker must choose one of the three keys as required for the conversation. Most of the speech for a speaker takes place at the mid (unmarked) key, employed in normal and unemotional speech. In contrast, high and low keys are marked: high key is used for emotionally charged intonation units while use of low key indicates an existence of equivalence (as in appositive expressions), and relatively less significant contribution to the speech. The relationship between pitch and key is a comparative one in that syllabic pitch is always higher than the utterance pitch; in some sense, syllabic pitch is one step ahead of the utterance pitch.
High Key
Exclamation
Exclamation is usually the cover term used to refer to actions described by verbs such as cry, scream, shout, wail, shriek, roar, yell, whoop, bellow, bark, thunder, howl, echo, and so on. Speakers do these to express their strong feelings such as excitement, surprise, anger, irritation, rage, fury, wrath, fume, agitation, cheer, merriment, gaiety, fun, etc. Speakers generally exploit high pitch when they exclaim.
The extract '''Have you guessed?' he whispered at last. 'Oh God!' burst in a terrible wail from her breast.''' can be schematized as
high She:                       oh GOD
mid
low  He: / have you GUESSED? /
Contrastivity
Another function of high pitch is to indicate contrastivity. Brazil et al. (1980:26) note the following: 'It is proposed as a general truth that the choice of high key presents the matter of the tone unit as if in the context of an existentially-valid opposition.' Consider the following adapted example, in which the word uttered with a high key has contrastive stress (Brazil et al., 1980:26):
high                                         BOGnor /
mid / we're going to MARgate this year / not
low
In addition to the high key for Bognor, either referring (fall-rise) or proclaiming (fall) tone should be selected. Use of high key with referring tone indicates that the contrast was established prior to this utterance whereas a proclaiming tone reports what the two options are as part of the news. The following example, adapted from Pennington (1996:132), also illustrates the utilization of high key for contrast:
high                              YALE /
mid / I'm going to HARvard / not
low
Echo/Repeat
The act of echoing/repeating is almost always done with high pitch. It may involve a genuine attempt to recover unrecognized, unheard information, or to indicate disbelief, disappointment and so on. The tone to be utilized in such intonation units is high-rise. Consider the following exchange where a case of disbelief is in question:
a) 'Four thousand,' said Barney sadly.
b) 'Four thousand?' But it's just a shack!
high B:                  four THOUsand
mid                                   / but it's just a SHACK /
low A: / four THOUsand /
In the following examples, a repetition and/or clarification and disbelief is sought, respectively:
a) I'm taking up taxidermy.
b) Taking up what?
high B:                             taking up WHAT /
mid A: / I'm taking up TAxidermy /
low
Low Key
Co-reference, Appositives
Lower pitch is used to indicate co-referential, additional or supplementary information. Consider the following example, in which the word dummy in low key is co-referential with you in mid key (Pennington, 1996:152):
high
mid / I TOLD you already /
low                        DUMmy /
Non-defining Relative Clauses
The type of information uttered in low pitch may be non-defining relative clauses, parenthetical statements expressions of dis/agreement, reduced clauses etc. Consider the following:
high
mid / my DOCtor /                     / is very WELL-known /
low               who's a neuROlogist
Statements of Opinion
There are times when short statements of opinion, involving clarification, certainty/uncertainty, are attached to propositional statements. Look at the examples below:
high
mid / the COvernment /          / will agree with our deMANDS
low                    I THINK
Conclusion
This study has argued for the inclusion of intonational features of English in the syllabuses designed for the teaching of English as a second/foreign language, and provided a practical framework of English intonation, which is based on the present author's experiences. Intonation, the non-grammatical, non-lexical component of communication, is an inseparable component of utterances. Speech without intonational features is no more than a machine output. Intonation is a paralinguistic device in vocal communication. It reveals many facets of the communication process taking into consideration all factors present in the discourse context. Therefore, it is an indispensable part of speech. Tones are important discourse strategies to communicate effectively; simply, it is not what you say, it is how you say it. Therefore, a proficiency in intonation is a requirement for non-native learners of English for a better communicative discourse with native or non-native speakers of English.
Bibliography
• Bolinger, D. 1968. Aspects of Language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
• Brazil, D. & M. Coulthart, C. Johns 1980. Discourse Intonation and Language Teaching.. Harlow (Essex): Longman.
• Brown, G. 1977. Listening to Spoken English. Harlow (Essex): Longman.
• Coulthard, M. 1977. An introduction to Discourse Analysis. Harlow (Essex): Longman.
• Cruttenden, A. 1986. lntonation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Crystal, D, 1969. Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Dickerson, W. B. 1989. Stress in the Speech Stream: The Rhythm of Spoken English. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
• Halliday, M. A. K. 1967. Intonation and Grammar in British English. The Hague: Mouton.
• Kenworthy, J. 1987. Teaching English Pronunciation. London: Longman.
• Ladefoged, P.1982 (1975). A Course in Phonetics. New York: Harcourt Jovanovich.
• Levis, M. K 1999. Intonation in Theory and Practice, Revisited. TESOL Quarterly, 3: 37-63
• O'Connor, J.D. & G. K Arnold. 1973. Intonation of Colloquial English. London: Longman.
• Pennington, M. C. 1996. Phonology in English Language Teaching. London: Long man.
• Roach, P. 1983. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Underhill, A. 1994. Sound Foundations: Living Phonology. Oxford: Heinemann.
















American english pattern

Many of my clients tell me that native speakers say the intonation of their speech sounds a bit strange or sarcastic.
If this is happening to you, you need to learn about intonation patterns.
Intonation helps create the music of spoken American English. That’s because English speakers use different types of intonation or pitch patterns in sentences and phrases.
These intonation patterns, which are not visible in the written language, are extremely important because they convey meaning. If you are not aware of how Americans use these pitch or intonation patterns you could risk confusing or even offending your listeners.
Here are some examples of how American listeners interpret pitch patterns:
• If you use an very high pitch it indicates that you are surprised.
• If you use an very low pitch it may indicate that you are angry.
• If your pitch is too neutral it may indicate that you are bored.
The most common intonation pattern in spoken English is rising falling intonation. In rising falling intonation the pitch rises on the most important word in a sentence and then drops to indicate that you are finished speaking.
Americans use rising falling intonation in declarative sentences, commands and when asking questions that begin with the words who, what, where, when and why.
For example, in the sentence-WHERE is she GOing?-the pitch rises and falls on the word GOing.
Another common intonation pattern is rising intonation. In this pattern the pitch rises and stays high at the end of the sentence. When you use rising intonation it indicates that you are waiting for a reply or an answer.
Americans use rising intonation for questions that they expect to be answered with yes or no, or when they are expressing doubt or surprise.
For example, in the sentence-The PREsident is HERE?!-the pitch rises and stays high at the end of the sentence.
Even if you pronounce all of your American English vowel and consonant sounds clearly you will have a difficult time communicating with American English speakers if you don’t use the correct intonation patterns. Your speech patterns may sound rather dull to American listeners or they may even contribute to misunderstandings!
Try to listen carefully to the way Americans use sentence intonation and copy the patterns in your own speech. This will make your English sound much more natural to American listeners.
Most Chinese speakers, Spanish speakers and Indian language speakers need to learn how to use American English intonation patterns.
The Best Accent Training audio course contains several great lessons on intonation. You can buy these individually and the cost is very reasonable. Choose the lessons called Focus Words,  Jump-up glide down & Jump-up jump down. You will learn a lot!
It is hard to learn intonation on your own, but once you learn the patterns by listening to an audio lesson you will be able to hear these and master them.
Of course I teach you all about American English intonation patterns in my Accent Reduction Coaching Course.















Rising and falling intonation
We vary the intonation of a question tag depending on whether we are asking a real question, or just using the question tag to keep the conversation flowing. See below:

Real question - rising intonation

You will do it quickly, won't you?

John and Mark aren't English, are they?


Checking information or making conversation - falling intonation

We've seen that film, haven't we?

Paul doesn't like mushrooms, does he?










MEANING OF INTONATION
Perhaps you have heard people say that intonation is the melody or the music of spoken American English. That's because English speakers use different types of intonation or pitch patterns in sentences and phrases.
These intonation patterns are not visible in the written language. However they are extremely important because they convey meaning. If you are not aware of how Americans use these pitch or intonation patterns you could risk confusing or offending your listeners.
Here are some examples of how American listeners interpret pitch patterns:
1. If you use a very high pitch it may indicate that you are surprised.
2. If you use a very low pitch it may indicate that you are angry.
3. If your pitch is too neutral it may indicate that you are bored or uninterested in the conversation.
In spoken English, intonation patterns can occur over phrases or entire sentences.
The most common intonation pattern in spoken English is rising falling intonation. In rising falling intonation the pitch RISES on the most important word in a sentence and then falls or drops to indicate that you are finished speaking.
Americans use rising falling intonation in declarative sentences, commands and when asking questions that begin with the words who, what, where, when and why.
For example, in the sentence-WHERE is she GOing?-the pitch rises and falls on the word GOing.
Another common intonation pattern is rising intonation. In this pattern the pitch rises and STAYS HIGH at the end of the sentence. When you use rising intonation it indicates that you are waiting for a reply from the listener.
Americans use rising intonation for questions that they expect to be answered with yes or no, or when they are expressing doubt or surprise.
For example, in the sentence-The president is HERE?!-the pitch rises and stays high at the end of the sentence.
Even if you pronounce all of your American English vowel and consonant sounds clearly you will still have a difficult time communicating with American English speakers if you don't use the correct intonation patterns. Your speech patterns may sound rather boring to American listeners or may even contribute to misunderstandings!
Try to listen carefully to the way Americans use sentence intonation and copy the patterns in your own speech. This will make your spoken English sound much more natural. Americans will understand you better and they will enjoy listening to you.
Susan Ryan is an American English pronunciation and accent reduction coach. Visit her blog to find lots of American English pronunciation and accent reduction techniques. These tips are absolutely free. Are you serious and ready to start reducing your accent today? If you are, take a minute to learn the benefits of accent reduction coaching by visiting Susan's website at LearnAmericanAccentOnline.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/2356078
















Teaching English intonation and stress patterns
TEACHING INDEX | NEXT
Teaching intonation - the theories behind intonation
Definitions
1. Tone - the rise and fall of the voice. Tune/Pitch variation. An oscilloscope will give an oscillograph of speech. The frequency will be shown by the closeness of the waves (high frequency will be shown by waves which are closer together).
2. The volume (strength of signal) will be shown by the height of the waves. The height of the note depends on the speed of opening and closing of the vocal cords. More vibrations of the larynx (up to 800 per sec) show up more compact waves.
The first thing that people (Daniel Jones, Kindom, Pike) looked at was pitch variation. Crude rules (Wh Qs fall; Yes/No Qs rise) based on introspection (what do I say?) rather than data. Those who have collected data come up with interesting findings:
Does intonation tell us what speech function is?
Many authors of intonation practice books [ e.g. O'Connor and Arnold in "Intonation of Colloquial English" or Cook in "Active Intonation" and "Using Intonation" ] provide exercises where speech functions such as polite requests or confirmation questions dictate the intonation patterns which listeners should expect or speakers should employ.
However, the findings of some research projects - most notably the Scottish Intonation Project - are that the relationships between intonation patterns [such as the tones categorized by O'Connor & Arnold] and speech functions are not so predictable.
Clear instances of rising tune -
1. Echo questions e.g. you what?
2. Challenging e.g. on Monday?
3. Conciliation: Oh really?
ATTITUDE: O'Connor & Arnold believe that intonation goes with attitude. They list 500 different attitudes. They have 4 Main Tunes.
Attitude is not conveyed by pitch alone.There's more to context than just pitch.
Note: Paralinguistic features identified by Gillian Brown. Variables include: pitch span, placing in voice range, tempo, loudness, voice setting (unmarked, breathy, creaky) articulatory setting (unmarked/tense), articulatory precision (precise/slurred/unmarked), lip setting (pursed/smiling), direction of pitch (rise/unmarked), timing (unmarked/extended), Pause (unmarked/pause).
These features are correlated with descriptions from novels: replied/said, retorted/exclaimed, important/pompous/responsible, dadly/depressed/miserable, excited, anxious/worried/nervous, shrill/shriek/scream, warmly, coldly, thoughtfully, sexily, crossly/angrily, queried/echoed.
Gillian Brown uses feature analysis (+ - or /) to make the connections. The idea of "Para-Language" is from Abacrombie. Desmond Morris has written a popular book on the subject - English people converse at 24 inches apart.
The importance of intonation in social interaction
TURN-TAKING: Giving the floor to another person or taking your turn in a conversation: rise and fall are used as a signal for when to speak and when not. Remain at a high pitch if you want to continue talking. A fall shows completion. (See Brazil)
INFORMATION STRUCTURE (See O'Connor): Major stress items pick out the most important words in the sentence: they point to the new/unknown information in the sentence. Michael Halliday has done most work on this.
Note that one function of intonation is stress. The tonic (stressed item) is the item which has the greatest amount of pitch movement on it.
Implications for teaching English pronunciation
Many linguists and teachers suggest that teachers should focus on teaching STRESS rather than RISE & FALL since there is a massive difference between how one person and another perceives an utterance. You need a machine to determine whether it's a rise or a fall.
At higher levels - for example, pronunciation sessions for learners involved in the language of negotiation or presentation in fields such as business or education, emphasis should also be given to TOPIC STRUCTURE - also related to turn-taking. Topic Switching: Start high. When people switch tack, they mark it with their voice.
[a] CONCLUSION: Teachable items are
1. Sentence STRESS
2. Contrastive STRESS.
[b] Distinguish between production and comprehension in your teaching.

[c] Teach intonation in context. e.g. being angry - use model dialogues to represent particular functions of the voice. Some practice in linking intonation patterns to attitude will probably help in clearer communication of meaning in spite of the findings of the Scottish Intonation Project.
Use of "dialogues" as English pronunciation teaching materials
Could a prose text have been used to equal effect or does the target depend heavily on face to face communication?
Many dialogues in English coursebooks are written specifically for grammar demonstration on the one hand and conversation-facilitation on the other. In each case, useful vocabulary is also demonstrated.
Colin Mortimer's dialogues in The Cambridge Elements of Pronunciation series (e.g. "Stress Time", "Weak Forms", "Link Up" and "Clusters") include single lexical items and conversational phrases i.e. some very essential features of speaker/listener interaction.
The importance of meaningful contexts and the relevance of intonation practice
How important is it to memorize dialogues incorporating these different objectives? Remember Monsieur le Surveillant's son in Algeria who memorized the whole book. Ask him where he lives and he's very puzzled!
Remember Hasdrubel in an English Primary School. His family has moved from Spain. He has mastered phonics and look and say and his reading appears to be fluent, though he has a total lack of intonation & stress. He has no idea what the words mean!
Remember the gentleman who can impress us by instantly recalling sporting facts. Try him on international politics. His memory training permits him to recall every date associated with countless events - some trivial and some important. What he is almost totally unable to do is to link information and to evaluate what is trivial and important in relation to a further goal or greater purpose. The ability to select according to priority and to combine information in other than a chronological sequence appears to be missing.
Linking intonation practice to practice in grammatical accuracy
Although books for practising English syntax in written form such as Intermediate English Grammar have their purpose, we are failing as teachers if we do not provide learners with the phonological rehearsal and memory training needed to achieve accuracy in oral English. Many important opportunities were lost to learners when language laboratory pattern drills (of the more meaningful variety) went out of fashion. Coupled with practice in stress and intonation, these drills can contribute far more effectively to communication skills than libraries of materials described as "authentic" - which often do not require learners to produce any sounds or syntactic forms at all.
Schools and Self Access Centres which really provide language practice opportunities will possess materials providing simultaneous rehearsal of syntax and pronunciation. The best of these are:

Kernel Lessons Plus Laboratory Drills and Kernel Lessons Intermediate Drills by Robert O'Neill.
Robert's drills provide rehearsal in repetition, substitution (simple, variable or progressive), transformation (e.g. Question & Answer; Tense to Tense), combination (e.g. collocation exercises). However, phonology, stress and intonation is being rehearsed all the time. Moreover, Robert's skill in relating syntax (e.g. structural forms in different verb tenses) to meaning and situation, escapes the shortcomings of drills that teach "structure speech" and offers the rehearsal and production opportunities that must be present in the curriculum if we are to have any chance of teaching oral communication. Meaningful contexts and naturalistic settings are present throughout.

Learners and teachers should be suspicious of any theory related to communicative language which ignores the essential need for active rehearsal and production of phonology (vowel & consonant sounds), stress and intonation patterns (signalling meaning and attitude) and syntax (also related to meaning via concepts such as time and completion).

Phonetics is defined as the study of sounds, while Phonology extends to the study of sounds within a language system. All spoken and written languages are systems.

To deny learners rehearsal in the recognition and production of English phonemes and syntactic forms in the name of some theory of Communicative Language Teaching dependent on "authentic materials" is absolute madness and has nothing to do with teaching communication. It also portrays a mistaken notion of authenticity. Nearly all speeches and texts that can be found in the world are produced with some purpose in mind. There is nothing culpable about creating written or spoken material designed especially to help people learn English. If material developed to practise phonology &/or syntax completely ignores function, attitude and meaning, then it is probably not very good material. Authenticity is not an issue. Texts or dialogues tailored to the phonology or grammar problems of learners from specific language backgrounds can be perfectly authentic as teaching material. Why choose texts designed to help or appeal to people with needs and interests which bear no relevance to learners' problems and goals?
Intonation has various functions in different world languages
On this page, we have been concerned with the functions of intonation in spoken English. In world languages, intonation is used to mark:
1. gender
2. number
3. quantity
4. tense or time
5. modality
6. pace (in some languages)
7. word order
8. punctuation and
9. boundary features
Teaching English rhythm and stress patterns - use of weak forms, stress placement & timing
As movement of pitch is heard on stressed syllables in the English language, practice of English intonation and stress patterns are closely linked. However, it can be beneficial to focus specifically on word and sentence stress. A Pronouncing Dictionary is recommended as a reference source to check where syllable stress occurs within words. Practising placement of stress within sentences is also essential if learners are to become good listeners and communicators, since the same sentence can take on different meanings depending on where the speaker chooses to place the primary stress:
EXAMPLE SENTENCE [A]: "I'm not going".
1. "I'm not going": meaning [1] = Not "ME", but perhaps "YOU", "SHE" or "HE".
2. "I'm not going": meaning [2] = I reFUSE to go.
3. "I'm not going": meaning [3] = I'm not GOing... I'm COMing BACK!
Sentence stress can also be illustrated and practised by writing a long sentence on the board, which can be made to carry many different meanings or points of emphasis.
EXAMPLE SENTENCE [B]: "Janet's going to Brighton tomorrow afternoon to buy herself a pair of red, leather shoes."
Practice of sentence stress is achieved by cueing the learners with questions while requiring them to use the whole sentence in reply. The second time this is done, the learners can discard the parts of the sentence which do not contain the important element of the answer in order to form a more natural response.
The teacher provides cues such as: "Is John going to Brighton...?", "Is Janet going to London..?", "Is Janet going away from Brighton...?", "Is Janet coming from Brighton...? Is Janet going to sell her mother a pair of red, leather shoes?", "Is Janet going to buy herself three pairs...?" "Is Janet going to buy herself a pair of blue, suede shoes / red, leather sandels?"
It will become clear to learners that there are many variations of sentence stress, which will decide the meaning of their responses.
A practice session on stress could also be included in a lesson aimed at improving listening comprehension. Learners who listen to utterances in a linear way, giving equal importance to each word in sequence, are exhibiting very poor listening strategies. Learners who do this are usually the ones who complain that it is too fast and ask for sluggishly slow colloquial. What they are missing is the fact that in the English language, the words carrying the important meaning are often located at or towards the end of an utterance or sentence. Words such as "I" (and more difficult items than subject pronouns placed near the beginning of sentences) are often fairly redundant in terms of meaning since they refer to known territory: i.e. the listener already knows that it is "you" who is speaking. Try the following technique to make your learners more relaxed about rapidly spoken utterances:
EXAMPLE SENTENCE [C]: "I don't know whether you're wondering who I am, but may I introduce myself. I'm Tarzan."
Having deliberately recited the unimportant parts of this utterance at breakneck speed, reassure your learners by asking them just to listen to the important components near the end of the utterance, especially the words and syllables carrying the main stress. Make the point that native speakers only listen out for one or two propositions in an utterance and all that this one really communicates is "ME...TARZAN". Learning what parts of an utterance to discard (not even to assign to "the recycle bin") is a very important listening strategy. Native speakers would find listening comprehension impossible if they did not know how to process utterances in this way. It may be worth mentioning that the keys and tunes used at the beginning of sentences can communicate attitudes i.e. they can tell you if the speaker is angry or trying to be friendly, polite, formal or cold. Without understanding any of the words, it is still possible to detect the speaker's attitude.

Nonsense words (just "pure noises"!) can even be used to practise conveying attitude. In multilingual classes, this can form the basis of an interesting contrastive linguistics project on differences and common ground in the use of tunes and keys to communicate feelings and attitudes. Leo Jones includes activities of this kind in "Notions of English" [Cambridge]. Ask your learners to utter a nonsense sentence such as "I love you" several times, telling them what attitude [e.g. warmth, indifference, pride, hostility, boredom, interest] you wish them to communicate on each occasion. Fame Academy teachers try to get learners to sing with expression. The challenge for language teachers is to get learners to speak with expression.

Phonology, stress patterns and tunes are all interrelated. To achieve the correct rhythm, it is necessary to know when to use weak forms [this frequently involves the neutral vowel "schwa"], which is under-deployed by many second language learners. Learners whose native languages have many consonant sounds, but relatively few vowel sounds, especially long vowels and diphthongs [e.g. native speakers of Arabic languages and dialects], are likely to have poor stress timing and to make insufficient use of pitch variation (i.e. intonation).

Good material to practise expression (i.e. rhythm, stress and intonation) includes situational-based texts designed for role play where utterances are short (but dramatic!). Some of the best role play texts I have used were provided by Doug Case and Ken Wilson and the English Language Teaching Theatre. The two best titles were: "Off Stage" 1979 Heinemann [15 sketches + accompanying audio-cassette] and "Further Off Stage" 1984 [10 sketches + accompanying audio &/or video cassette]. Unfortunately, these materials are no longer in print. As smaller publishers are taken over by larger ones, editors who may not have had much classroom teaching experience are sometimes too involved in the promotion of new material of questionable value and overlook older "jewels in the crown". Doug Case and Ken Wilson's excellent material is in no way dated. Ken Wilson is also remembered for his key participation in the Solid British Hat Band, which produced "Mister Monday & other songs for the teaching of English" [Longman 1973]. These songs are also landmark material and could still be successfully used to practise syntax aurally / orally instead of reading through landmark material such as Raymond Murphy's "English Grammar in Use", which will itself be 20 years old soon!
Listening practice can also take the form of discrimination exercises where the same utterance is recited using different sentence stress patterns. The learners do not even have to see the sentence written down, but it is helpful if they have an Answer Grid where they have to choose between three possible meanings for each utterance: meaning [A], [B] or [C]. The same utterance can be used in successive discrimination test questions applying different stress patterns until each of the alternative meanings [A] [B] and [C] have been exhausted, though the learner will need to mark their answers in the correct sequence. Thus, seven different utterances, each presented three times, would require a ready-made Answer Grid offering twenty-one different meanings.
The best published material I have used of this kind was Donn Byrne and Gordon Walsh's "Listening Comprehension 1 Teacher's Book" [Longman 1973] containing sample utterances to practise phonology [Units 1-11], stress, rhythm and intonation [Units 12-16]. The Answer Grids were contained in an accompanying student's workbook entitled "Pronunciation Practice". These materials have long been out of print, though it is quite easy for native speakers of English to produce their own.